ribes began to evolve politically from relatively small and simple entities into larger and more complex ones. At first they formed temporary alliances with one another for defensive or offensive purposes, then federations and, still later, kingdoms. The most important of these kingdoms, which flourished from the 5th to the 2nd century BC, were those of the Enchelei,[25] the Taulanti[26] and the Ardiaei. The kingdom, became known by King Bardyllis (385-358 B.C.) in the 4th century BC when he conquered a good part of Macedonia, but he was defeated as a result of the attacks made by Philip II of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great. The Illyrian Kingdom reached the zenith of its expansion and development when King Agron (250-230 B.C.), one of the most prominent of the Illyrian kings, managed to unite many Illyrian tribes into one Illyrian kingdom. The Illyrian kingdom under his leadership controlled a wide territory extending from the general area of modern-day Northern Albania and eventually much of the eastern Adriatic coastline. Shkodra was its capital, just as the city is now the most important urban center of northern Albania. Under Agron the Illyrian Kingdom centered at Scodra stretched from Dalmatia in the north down to the coast opposite to the heel of Italy.[27]. After his death in 230 BC the following Queen Teuta (230-228 B.C.) captured Corcyra and forced Epirotes to alliance with Illyrians[28] thus extending their sphere of control to the Corinthian Gulf.[29]. Later on in 229 BC Queen Teuta clashed with Romans initiating this way the Illyrian Wars which brought the Illyrian Kingdom to an end in 168 B.C. when King Gentius was defeated by a Roman army besieging Scodra. Roman and Byzantine Empire Route of the Via Egnatia The lands comprising modern-day Albania were occupied by the Romans in 165 BC and incorporated into the empire as part of the province of Illyricum. The western part of Via Egnatia, was inside modern Albania. Illyricum was later divided into the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia. When the Roman Empire divided into east and west in 395, the territories of modern Albania became part of the Byzantine Empire. Starting in the first decades under Byzantine rule (until 461), Illyria suffered the devastation of raids by Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths. Not long after these barbarian invaders swept through the Balkans, the Slavs appeared. In the course of several centuries, under the impact of Roman, Byzantine, and Slavic cultures, the tribes of southern Illyria underwent a transformation, and a transition occurred from the old Illyrian population to a new Albanian one.[citation needed] Long before these events, Christianity had become the established religion in Albania, supplanting pagan polytheism. But, though the country was in the fold of Byzantium, Albanian Christians remained under the jurisdiction of the Roman pope until 732. Albania would remain under Byzantine rule until the fourteenth century AD when the Ottoman Turks began to make incursions into the Empire. The Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453 and by 1460 most former Byzantine territories were in the hands of the Turks. Medieval era Durrės in 1573. In the latter part of the Middle Ages, Albanian urban society reached a high point of development. Foreign commerce flourished to such an extent that leading Albanian merchants had their own agencies in Venice, Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Croatia), and Thessaloniki (Greece).[citation needed] The prosperity of the cities also stimulated the development of education and the arts. Albanian, however, was not the language used in schools, churches, and official government transactions. Instead, Greek and Latin, which had the powerful support of the state and the church, were the official languages of culture and literature. The new administrative system of the themes, or military provinces created by the Byzantine Empire, contributed to the eventual rise of feudalism in Albania, as peasant soldiers who served military lords became serfs on their landed estates. Among the leading families of the Albanian feudal nobility were the Thopia, Shpata, Muzaka, Araniti, Dukagjini, and Kastrioti. The first three of these rose to become rulers of principalities that were practically independent of Byzantium. Ottoman era Engraving of an Albanian assault on a Turkish camp. In the Middle Ages, the name Arberia (see Origin and history of the name Albania) began to be increasingly applied to the region now comprising the nation of Albania. Beginning with late 14th century the Ottoman Turks expanded their empire from Anatolia to the Balkans. By the 15th century, the Turks had brought under subjection nearly all of the Balkan Peninsula except for a small coastal strip which is included in present-day Albania. The Albanians' resistance to the Turks in the mid-15th century won them acclaim all over Europe. Albania became a symbol of resistance to the Ottoman Turks but suffered an almost continuous state of warfare.[30] Portrait of Skanderbeg in the Uffizi, Florence. One of the most successful resistance against the invading Ottomans, was led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg from 1443 to 1468. Under a red flag bearing Skanderbeg's heraldic emblem, an Albanian force of about 30,000 men held off brutal Ottoman campaigns against their lands for twenty-four years.The leadership of Skanderbeg was invincible, and even Mehmet II, the Conqueror, was beaten by the Albanian prince at Kruja in 1466. Skanderbeg then re-embraced Roman Catholicism and declared a holy war against the Turks.[31] Thrice the Albanians overcame sieges of Krujė (see Siege of Krujė). Skanderbeg was unable to receive any help from the new crusade promised by the popes, and he died in 1468 leaving no worthy successor. After the death of Skanderbeg, resistance continued until 1478, although with only moderate success. The loyalties and alliances created and nurtured by Skanderbeg faltered and fell apart, and the Ottomans conquered the territory of Albania shortly after the fall of Kruje's castle. Albania then became part of the Ottoman Empire. Following this, many Albanians fled to neighboring Italy, mostly to Calabria and Sicily. The majority of the Albanian population converted to Islam during this time. During this period there were numerous uprising beginning with the son and nephew of Skanderbeg in 1500 AD, during the Ottoman–Venetian Wars, Ottoman–Habsburg wars, against Tanzimat reforms and during National Renaissance of Albania (1831-1912). This period also saw the rising of Great Albanian Pashaliks and Albanians were also an important part of the Ottoman army and Ottoman administration like the case of Köprülü family. Albania would remain a part of the Ottoman Empire as the provinces of Shkodra, Manastir and Yanya until 1912. Independence and recent history During the fifteenth century Albania enjoyed a brief period of independence under the legendary hero, Skanderbeg. Aside from this exception, the country did not enjoy independence until the twentieth century. After five hundred years of Ottoman domination, an independent Albania was proclaimed on the 28 November 1912. 1913 to 1928 The border between Albania and its neighbours was delineated in 1912-1913 following the dissolution of most of the Ottoman Empire's territories in the Balkans. The borders chosen for the new state did not correspond to the ethnic composition of the region, leaving hundreds of thousands of Albanians outside Albania. This population was largely divided between Montenegro and Serbia (which then included what is now the Republic of Macedonia). A substantial number of Albanians thus found themselves under Serbian rule. The initial sparks of the first Balkan War in 1912 were ignited by the Albanian uprising between 1908-10 which were directed at opposing the Young Turk policies of consolidation of the Ottoman Empire. Following the eventual weakening of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria declared war and sought to aggrandize their respective boundaries on the remaining territories of the Empire. Albania was thus invaded by Serbia in the North and Greece in the south, restricting the country to only a patch of land around the southern coastal city of Vlora. In 1912 Albania, still under foreign occupation declared its independence and with the aid of Austria-Hungary, the Great Powers drew its present borders leaving more than half of the Albanian population outside the new country. The country adopted a republican form of government in 1920.[32] 1928 to 1946 Ahmet Muhtar Bey Zogolli Starting in 1928, but especially during the Great Depression, the government King Zog, almost completely dependent on Mussolini, began to cede Albania's sovereignty to Italy. By 1939 the Italians invaded the country. Despite some strong resistance, especially at Durrės, Italy invaded Albania on 7 April 1939 and took control of the country, with Mussolini proclaiming Italy's figurehead King as King of Albania. Albania was one of the first countries occupied by the Axis Powers in World War II.[33] As Hitler began his aggressions, the Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini decided to occupy Albania as a means to compete with Hitler's territorial gains. Mussolini and the Italian Fascists saw Albania as a historical part of the Roman Empire and the occupation was intended to fulfill Mussolini's dream of creating an Italian Empire. During Italian occupation, the Albanian population was subject to a policy of forced Italianization by the Kingdom's Italian governors in which the use of the Albanian language was discouraged in schools while the Italian language was promoted, and colonization of Albania by Italians was encouraged. Mussolini, in October 1940, used his Albanian base to launch an attack on Greece, which led to the defeat of the Italian forces and a Greek occupation of southern Albania. However, Hitler in his preparations for the invasion of Russia, decided to attack Greece in December 1940 to prevent a British attack on his southern flank and the Greek surrender returned Albania to Italian control.[34] Albanian bunkers built during Hoxha regime to prevent possible external invasions During World War II, the Party of Labor created on 8 November 1941. With the intention to organize a partisan resistance they called a general conference in Pezė on 16 September 1942 where the Albanian National Liberation Front was created as a result. The Front included nationalist groups, but it was dominated by communist partisans. In December 1942 other Albanian nationalist were organized under Visar Kola. Albanians fought against the Italians while during German occupation Balli Kombėtar allied himself with the Germans and clashed with Albanian communists, which continued their fight against Germans and Balli Kombėtar in the same time. With the Mussolini's government collapsing with the Allied invasion, Germany occupied Albania in September 1943, dropping paratroopers into Tirana before the Albanian guerrillas could take the capital. The German army soon drove the guerrillas into the hills and to the south. Berlin subsequently announced it would recognize the independence of a neutral Albania and organized an Albanian government, police, and military. Many Balli Kombėtar units cooperated with the Germans against the communists, and several Balli Kombėtar leaders held positions in the German-sponsored regime. The partisans entirely liberated Albania from German occupation on November 28, 1944. The Albanian partisans also liberated Kosovo, part of Montenegro, and southern Bosnia & Herzegovina. By November 1944 they had thrown the Germans out, the only East European nation to do so without the assistance of Soviet troops. Enver Hoxha became the leader of the country by virtue of his position as secretary general of the Albanian Communist Party. Albania was one of the European countries occupied by the Axis powers that ended World War II with a larger Jewish population than before the War.[35][36][37] Only one Jewish family was deported and killed during the Nazi occupation of Albania.[38] Some 1,200 Jewish residents and refugees from other Balkan countries were hidden by Albanian families during World War II, according to official records.[39] Post-World War II Enver Hoxha mausolé Tirana's Square in 1988 Albania allied with the USSR, and then broke with the USSR in 1960 over de-Stalinization. A strong political alliance with China followed, leading to several billion dollars in aid, which was curtailed after 1974. China cut off aid in 1978 when Albania attacked its policies after the death of Chinese ruler Mao Zedong. Large-scale purges of officials occurred during the 1970s. Enver Hoxha, who ruled Albania for four decades with an iron fist, died 11 April 1985. Eventually the new regime introduced some liberalization, including measures in 1990 providing for freedom to travel abroad. Efforts were begun to improve ties with the outside world. March 1991 elections left the former Communists in power, but a general strike and urban opposition led to the formation of a coalition cabinet including non-Communists.[40] Albania's former Communists were routed in elections March 1992, amid economic collapse and social unrest. Sali Berisha was elected as the first non-Communist president since World War II. The next crisis occurred in 1997, as riots ravaged the country. Victory by a pro-Berisha coalition in elections 3 July 2005, ended 8 years of Socialist Party rule. In 2009, Albania, along with Croatia, joined NATO. Government and politics Main article: Politics of Albania Albania This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Albania Constitution President Prime Minister Cabinet of Albania Parliament Political parties Politicians Elections: 2005, 2009 Counties Districts Foreign relations Other countries · Atlas  Politics portal view • talk • edit Albania's Prime Minister Sali Berisha with then U.S. President George W. Bush in Tirana, June 2007. The Albanian republic is a parliamentary democracy established under a constitution renewed in 1998. Elections are now held every four years to a unicameral 140-seat chamber, the People's Assembly. In June 2002, a compromise candidate, Alfred Moisiu, former Army General, was elected to succeed President Rexhep Meidani. Parliamentary elections in July 2005 brought Sali Berisha, as leader of the Democratic Party, back to power. The Euro-Atlantic integration of Albania has been the ultimate goal of the post-communist governments. Albania's EU membership bid has been set as a priority by the European Commission. Albania, along with Croatia, received in 3 April 2008 an invitation to join NATO. Albania and Croatia joined NATO on 2 April 2009 becoming the 27th and 28th members of the alliance.[41] The workforce of Albania has continued to migrate to Greece, Italy, Germany, other parts of Europe, and North America. However, the migration flux is slowly decreasing, as more and more opportunities are emerging in Albania itself as its economy steadily develops. Albanian emigrants have achieved great success in multiple geographies and disciplines abroad. Executive branch The head of state in Albania is the President of the Republic. The President is elected to a 5-year term by the Assembly of the Republic of Albania by secret ballot, requiring a 50%+1 majority of the votes of all deputies. The next election will run in the year 2012. The current President of the Republic is Bamir Topi. The President has the power to guarantee observation of the constitution and all laws, act as commander in chief of the armed forces, exercise the duties of the Assembly of the Republic of Albania when the Assembly is not in session, and appoint the Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister). Executive power rests with the Council of Ministers (cabinet). The Chairman of the Council (Prime Minister) is appointed by the President; ministers are nominated by the President on the basis of the Prime Minister's recommendation. The People's Assembly must give final approval of the composition of the Council. The Council is responsible for carrying out both foreign and domestic policies. It directs and controls the activities of the ministries and other state organs. President Bamir Topi 20 July 2007 Prime Minister Sali Berisha PD 3 September 2005 Legislative branch The Assembly of the Republic of Albania (Kuvendi i Republikės sė Shqipėrisė) is the lawmaking body in Albania. There are 140 deputies in the Assembly, which are elected though a party-list proportional representation system. The President of the Assembly (or Speaker) has two deputies and chairs the Assembly. There are 15 permanent commissions, or committees. Parliamentary elections are held at least every 4 years. The Assembly has the power to decide the direction of domestic and foreign policy; approve or amend the constitution; declare war on another state; ratify or annul international treaties; elect the President of the Republic, the Supreme Court, and the Attorney General and his or her deputies; and control the activity of state radio and television, state news agency, and other official information media. Geography Main article: Geography of Albania Satellite image of Albania. Coastline in Himarė Ksamil, Little Islands Albania has a total area of 28,748 square kilometers. Its coastline is 362 kilometres long and extends along the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The lowlands of the west face the Adriatic Sea. The 70% of the country that is mountainous is rugged and often inaccessible from the outside. The highest mountain is Korab situated in the district of Dibra, reaching up to 2,753 metres (9,030 ft). The country has a continental climate at its high altitude regions with cold winters and hot summers. Besides the capital city of Tirana, which has 800,000 inhabitants, the principal cities are Durrės, Elbasan, Shkodėr, Gjirokastėr, Vlorė, Korēė and Kukės. In Albanian grammar, a word can have indefinite and definite forms, and this also applies to city names: both Tiranė and Tirana, Shkodėr and Shkodra are used. The three largest and deepest tectonic lakes of the Balkan Peninsula are partly located in Albania. Lake Shkodėr in the country's northwest has a surface which can vary between 370 km2 (140 sq mi) and 530 km2, out of which one third belongs to Albania and rest to Montenegro. The Albanian shoreline of the lake is 57 km. Ohrid Lake is situated in the country's southeast and is shared between Albania and Republic of Macedonia. It has a maximal depth of 289 meters and a variety of unique flora and fauna can be found there, including “living fossils” and many endemic species. Because of its natural and historical value, Ohrid Lake is under the protection of UNESCO. Over a third of the territory of Albania – about 10,000 square kilometres (2.5 million acres) – is forested and the country was very rich in flora. About 3.000 different species of plants grow in Albania, many of which are used for medicinal purposes. Phytogeographically, Albania belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the Adriatic and East Mediterranean provinces of the Mediterranean Region and the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature and Digital Map of European Ecological Regions by the European Environment Agency, the territory of Albania can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Illyrian deciduous forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests and Dinaric Mountains mixed forests. The forests are home to a wide range of mammals, including wolves, bears, wild boars, and chamois. Lynx, wildcats, pine martens and polecats are rare, but survive in some parts of the country. Climate