Czarnków, he spoke of the Lithuanian grand duke Jogaila and his mother being imprisoned in 1381 at "Albae Russiae, Poloczk dicto".[16] The Latin term " Alba Russia" was again used by Pope Pius VI when establishing a Jesuit Society in 1783. His official Papal bull exclaimed "Approbo Societatem Jesu in Alba Russia degentem, approbo, approbo."[17] Historically, the country was referred to in English as "White Ruthenia". The first known use of "White Russia" to refer to Belarus was in the late-16th century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey.[18] During the 17th century, Russian tsars used "White Rus"" when describing the lands captured from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[19] Belarus was named "Belorussia" (Russian: ??????????) in the days of the Russian Empire, and the Russian tsar was usually styled "Tsar of All the Russias", as "Russia" or the "Russian Empire" was formed by all the Russias — the Great, Little, and White. At the time, "Byelorussia" was the only Russian language name of the country; under the Russian Empire, Belarus was generally seen as a part of the Russian nation and the Belarusian language was viewed as a dialect of Russian.[20] After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the term White Russia caused some confusion because it was also the name of the military force that opposed the "red" Bolsheviks.[21] During the period of the Belorussian SSR, the term "Byelorussia" was embraced as part of a national consciousness. In the Polish-held Western Belarus, "Byelorussia" became commonly used in the regions of Bialystok and Grodno during the interwar period.[22] The term "Belorussia" (its names in other languages such as English being based on the Russian form) was only used officially until 1991, when the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic decreed by law that the new independent republic should be called "Belarus" (????????) in Russian and in all other language transcriptions of its name. The change was made to reflect adequately the Belarusian language form of the name. The use of Byelorussian SSR and any abbreviations of that name was allowed from 1991 until 1993.[23] Conservative forces in the newly independent Belarus did not support the name change and opposed its inclusion in the 1991 draft of the Constitution of Belarus.[24] Accordingly, the name "Belorussia" was replaced by "Belarus" in English,[25] and, to some extent, in Russian (although the traditional name still persists in that language as well); likewise, the adjective "Belorussian" or "Byelorussian" was replaced by "Belarusian" in English (though Russian has not developed a new adjective). "Belarusian" is closer to the original Russian term of "bielaruski."[25] Belarusian intelligentsia in the Stalin era attempted to change the name from "Belorussia" to a form of "Krivia" because of the supposed connection with Russia.[26] Some nationalists also object to the name for the same reason.[27][28] However, several popular newspapers published locally still retain the old name of the country in Russian in their names, for example Komsomolskaya Pravda v Byelorussii, which is the localized publication of a popular Russian tabloid. Also, those who wish for Belarus to be reunited with Russia continue to use "Belorussia".[28] Officially, the full name of the country is "Republic of Belarus" (?????????? ????????, ?????????? ????????, Respublika Belarus").[23][29] listen (help·info) [edit] History Main article: History of Belarus [edit] Ancient History Both Homo erectus and Neanderthal remains have been found in the region. Later Neolithic modern man that moved into the area established from 5000-2000 BCE Bandkerimik cultures, which predominated. Cimmerians and other pastoralists roamed through the area by 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, Slavs had taken up residence there, with Scythian pressure on the outskirts of their territories. Various Asiatic "barbarian" invasions passed around the region, including Huns and Avars circa 400-600 CE, but did not dislodge the Slavic presence.[30] [edit] Middle Ages & Modern Period Stamp with the Cross of St. Euphrasyne from 1991 The region that is now Belarus was first settled by Slavic tribes in the 6th century. They gradually came into contact with the Varangians, bands of Scandinavian warriors and traders.[31] Though defeated and briefly exiled by the local population, the Varangians were later asked to return[31] and helped to form a polity—commonly referred to as the Kievan Rus'—in exchange for tribute. The Kievan Rus' state began in about 862 around the city of Kiev[32] or alternatively around the present-day city of Novgorod.[32] Upon the death of Kievan Rus' ruler, Prince Yaroslav the Wise, the state split into independent principalities.[33] These Ruthenian principalities were badly affected by a Mongol invasion in the 13th century, and many were later incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[34] Of the principalities held by the Duchy, nine were settled by ancestors of the Belarusian people.[35] During this time the Duchy was involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side of Poland against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410; the joint victory allowed the Duchy to control the northwestern border lands of Eastern Europe.[36] Map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1619 On 2 February 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers.[37] This union set in motion the developments that eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, created in 1569. The Russians, led by Ivan III of Moscow, began military conquests in 1486 in an attempt to reunite the Kievan Rus' lands, specifically the territories of modern day Belarus and Ukraine.[38] The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795 with the partitioning of Poland by Imperial Russia, Prussia, and Austria.[39] During this time the territories of modern day Belarus were acquired by the Russian Empire, under the reign of Catherine II[40] and held until their occupation by German Empire during World War I.[41] [edit] 20th century During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Belarus first declared independence on 25 March 1918, forming the Belarusian People's Republic. The Belarusian People's Republic was created while under German occupation and it was one of the first attempts to "Westernize" Belarus. Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia was proclaimed.[42][43] Immediately after the formation of the BPR Polish–Soviet War was started, and Belarus was torn between resurgent Poland and Soviet Russia, part of Belarus under Russian rule became the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1919. Soon that part was merged into the Lithuanian–Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Belarusian lands were then partitioned between Poland and the Soviet Union after the Polish–Soviet War ended in 1921, and the Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922.[42][44] At the same time Western Belarus remained occupied by Poland.[45][46][46] A set of agricultural reforms, culminating in the Belarusian phase of Soviet collectivization, began in the 1920s. A process of rapid industrialization was undertaken during the 1930s, following the model of Soviet five-year plans. The Brest Fortress to the War Memorial Soviet partisan fighters behind German front lines in Belarus in 1943 In 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union invaded and occupied Poland, marking the beginning of World War II. Much of northeastern Poland, which had been part of the country since the Peace of Riga two decades earlier, was annexed to the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, and now constitutes West Belarus.[6][7][8][9][10][11] The Soviet-controlled Belarusian People Council officially took control of the territories, which had a predominantly ethnic Belarusian population, on October 28, 1939, in Bialystok.[11] Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 – the Brest Fortress, which had been annexed in 1939, received one of the fiercest of the war's opening blows, with its notable defense in 1941 coming to be remembered as an act of heroism in countering the German aggression. Statistically, BSSR was the hardest hit Soviet republic in the war and remained in Nazi hands until 1944. During that time, Germany destroyed 209 out of 290 cities in the republic, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings.[12] Casualties were estimated to be between two and three million (about a quarter to one-third of the total population), while the Jewish population of Belarus was devastated during the Holocaust and never recovered.[12][47] The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971.[47] After the war ended, Belarus was officially among the 51 founding countries of the United Nations Charter in 1945; along with Ukraine it was given an additional vote at the UN alongside that of the Soviet Union. Intense post-war reconstruction was initiated promptly. During this time, the Belorussian SSR became a major center of manufacturing in the western region of the USSR, increasing jobs and bringing an influx of ethnic Russians into the republic.[48] The borders of Belorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn to a point known as the Curzon Line.[49] Map of the Belorussian SSR, 1940 Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietization to isolate the Belorussian SSR from Western influences.[47] This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Belorussian SSR government. The official use of the Belarusian language and other cultural aspects were limited by Moscow. After Stalin died in 1953, successor Nikita Khrushchev continued this program, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian, the faster we shall build communism."[47] The Belorussian SSR was significantly exposed to nuclear fallout from the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant in neighboring Ukrainian SSR in 1986.[50] In June 1988 at the rural site of Kurapaty near Minsk, archaeologist Zyanon Paznyak, the leader of Christian Conservative Party of the BPF, discovered mass graves of victims executed in 1937–1941.[50] Some nationalists contend that this discovery is proof that the Soviet government was trying to erase the Belarusian people, causing Belarusian nationalists to seek independence.[51] Two years later, in March 1990, elections for seats in the Supreme Soviet of the Belorussian SSR took place. Though the pro-independence Belarusian Popular Front took only 10% of the seats, the populace was content with the selection of the delegates.[52] Belarus declared itself sovereign on 27 July 1990, by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic. With the support of the Communist Party, the country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991.[52] Stanislav Shushkevich, the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, met with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine on 8 December 1991, in Belavezhskaya Pushcha to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.[52] A national constitution was adopted in March 1994, in which the functions of prime minister were given to the president. Two-round elections for the presidency (24 June 1994 and 10 July 1994)[53] resulted in the politically unknown Alexander Lukashenko winning more than 45% of the vote in the first round and 80%[52] in the second round, beating Vyacheslav Kebich who got 14%. Lukashenko was reelected in 2001 and in 2006. [edit] Politics See also: Politics of Belarus and Human rights in Belarus Victory Square, Minsk Belarus is a presidential republic, governed by a president and the National Assembly. According to the 1994 constitution, the president is elected once every five years. However, after a disputed vote in 1996, the term was changed from five years to seven years.[54] The National Assembly is a bicameral parliament comprising the 110-member House of Representatives (the lower house) and the 64-member Council of the Republic (the upper house). The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the prime minister, make constitutional amendments, call for a vote of confidence on the prime minister, and make suggestions on foreign and domestic policy. The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president, and accept or reject the bills passed by the House of Representatives. Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the Constitution of Belarus.[55] Since 1994, Alexander Lukashenko has been the president of Belarus. The government includes a Council of Ministers, headed by the prime minister and five deputy prime ministers.[56] The members of this council need not be members of the legislature and are appointed by the president. The judiciary comprises the Supreme Court and specialized courts such as the Constitutional Court, which deals with specific issues related to constitutional and business law. The judges of national courts are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic. For criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the Supreme Court. The Belarusian Constitution forbids the use of special extrajudicial courts.[55] House of Government in Minsk, with a statue of Vladimir Lenin in the foreground As of 2007, 98 of the 110 members of the House of Representatives are not affiliated with any political party and of the remaining twelve members, eight belong to the Communist Party of Belarus, three to the Agrarian Party of Belarus, and one to the Liberal Democratic Party of Belarus. Most of the non-partisans represent a wide scope of social organizations such as workers' collectives, public associations and civil society organizations. Neither the pro-Lukashenko parties, such as the Belarusian Socialist Sporting Party and the Republican Party of Labor and Justice, nor the People's Coalition 5 Plus opposition parties, such as the Belarusian People's Front and the United Civil Party of Belarus, won any seats in the 2004 elections. Groups such as the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) declared the election "un-free" because of the opposition parties' poor results and media bias in favor of the government.[57] In the country's 2006 presidential election, Lukashenko was opposed by Alaksandar Milinkievic, a candidate representing a coalition of opposition parties, and by Alaksandar Kazulin of the Social Democrats. Kazulin was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding the All Belarusian People's Assembly. Lukashenko won the election with 80% of the vote; the Russian Federation and the CIS called the vote open and fair[58] while the OSCE and other organizations called the election unfair.[59] The 1991–1995 flag that is used as a symbol of the Belarusian opposition Lukashenko has described himself as having an "authoritarian ruling style."[60] Western countries have described Belarus under Lukashenko as a dictatorship; the government has accused the same Western powers of trying to oust Lukashenko.[61] The Council of Europe has barred Belarus from membership since 1997 for undemocratic voting and election irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections.[62] The Belarusian government is also criticized for human rights violations and its actions against non-governmental organizations, independent journalists, national minorities, and opposition politicians.[63][64] Belarus is the only nation in Europe that retains the death penalty for certain crimes during times of peace and war.[65] The constitution was also changed by Lukashenko in 2004 to lift the two-term limit for the presidency.[66] Previously in 1996, Lukashenko called for a controversial vote to extend the presidential term from five years to seven years and the voters passed it.[67] In testimony to the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, former United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice labeled Belarus among the six nations of the "outposts of tyranny".[68] In response, the Belarusian government called the assessment "quite far from reality."[69] [edit] Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of Belarus and Armed Forces of Belarus Alexander Lukashenko (left) shaking hands with Dmitry Medvedev (President of Russia) in 2008 Belarus and Russia have been close trading partners and diplomatic allies since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Belarus is dependent on Russia for imports of raw materials and for its export market.[70] The Union of Russia and Belarus, a supranational confederation, was established in a 1996–99 series of treaties that called for monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defense policy.[70] However, the future of the Union has been placed in doubt because of Belarus's repeated delays of monetary union, the lack of a referendum date for the draft constitution, and a 2006–07 dispute about petroleum trade.[70] On 11 December 2007, reports emerged that a framework for the new state was discussed between both countries.[71] On 27 May 2008, Belarusian President Lukashenko said that he had named Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin the "prime minister" of the Russia-Belarus alliance. The meaning of the move was not immediately clear; however, there was speculation that Putin might become President of a unified state of Russia and Belarus after stepping down as Russian president in May 2008, although this has not happened.[72] Belarus was a founding member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); however, recently other CIS members have questioned the effectiveness of the organization.[73] Belarus has trade agreements with several European Union member states (despite other member states' travel ban on Lukashenko and top officials),[74] as well as with its neighbors Lithuania, Poland and Latvia (all of whom are EU members).[75] The travel bans from the European Union have been lifted in the past for not only letting Lukashenko attend diplomatic meetings but also as a way to engage both the government and opposition groups in dialogue.[76] Bilateral relations with the United States are strained because the U.S. Department of State supports various anti-Lukashenko NGOs and because the Belarusian government has made it harder for US-based organizations to operate within the country.[77] The 2004 US Belarus Democracy Act continued this trend, authorizing funding for what the US considers to be pro-democracy Belarusian NGOs and forbidding loans to the Belarusian government except for humanitarian purposes.[78] Despite this, the two nations cooperate on intellectual property protection, prevention of human trafficking and technology crime, and disaster relief.[79] Belarus has increased cooperation with China,[80] strengthened by the visit of President Lukashenko to China in October 2005.[81] Belarus has strong ties with Syria,[82] which President Lukashenko considers a key partner in the Middle East.[83] In addition to the CIS, Belarus has membership in the Eurasian Economic Community and the Collective Security Treaty Organisation.[75] Belarus has been a member of the international Non-Aligned Movement since 1998[84] and a member of the United Nations since its founding in 1945. Belarus is also a member of the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). As an OSCE participating State, Belarus's international commitments are subject to monitoring under the mandate of the U.S. Helsinki Commission.[85] The Armed Forces o