ania, it was merged into the Lithuanian-Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Byelorussian lands were then split between Poland and the Soviets after the Polish-Soviet War ended in 1921, and the recreated Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922.[21] In September 1939, as a result of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union invaded Poland and annexed its eastern lands, including most of Polish-held Byelorussian land.[22] Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. Byelorussia was the hardest hit Soviet Republic in the war and remained in Nazi hands until 1944. During that time, Germany destroyed 209 out of 290 cities in the republic, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings, while causing human losses estimated between two and three million (about a quarter to one-third of the total population).[3] The Jewish population of Byelorussia was devastated during The Holocaust and never recovered.[23] The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971.[23] After the war ended, Byelorussia was among the 51 founding countries of the United Nations Charter in 1945 and began rebuilding the Soviet Republic. During this time, the Byelorussian SSR became a major center of manufacturing in the western region of the USSR, increasing jobs and bringing an influx of ethnic Russians into the republic.[24] The borders of Byelorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn to a point known as the Curzon Line.[22] Map of the Byelorussian SSR, 1940 Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietization to isolate the Byelorussian SSR from Western influences.[23] This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government. The official use of the Belarusian language and other cultural aspects were limited by Moscow. After Stalin died in 1953, successor Nikita Khrushchev continued this program, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian, the faster we shall build communism".[23] When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev began pushing through his reform plan, the Belarusian people delivered a petition to him in December 1986 explaining the loss of their culture. Earlier that year, Byelorussian SSR was exposed to nuclear fallout from the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant in neighboring Ukrainian SSR.[25] In June 1988 at the city of Kurapaty, archaeologist Zianon Pazniak, the leader of Christian Conservative Party of the BPF, discovered mass graves which contained about 250,000 bodies of victims executed in 1941.[25] Some nationalists contend that this discovery is proof that the Soviet government was trying to erase the Belarusian people, causing Belarusian nationalists to seek independence.[26] A banner displayed by Belarusian students near Warsaw University showing support for Belarusian independence Two years later, in March 1990, elections for seats in the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian SSR took place. Though the pro-independence Belarusian Popular Front took only 10% of the seats, the populace was content with the selection of the delegates.[27] Belarus declared itself sovereign on July 27, 1990, by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic. With the support of the Communist Party, the country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on August 25, 1991.[27] Stanislav Shushkevich, the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, met with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine on December 8, 1991, in Belavezhskaya Pushcha to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.[27] A national constitution was adopted in March 1994, in which the functions of prime minister was given to the president. Two-round elections for the presidency (24 June 1994 and 10 July 1994)[28] resulted in the politically unknown Alexander Lukashenko winning more than 45 % of the vote in the first round and 80 %[27] in the second round, beating Vyacheslav Kebich who got 14 %. Lukashenko having been reelected in 2001 and in 2006. [edit] Politics Main article: Politics of Belarus Victory Square, Minsk Belarus is a presidential republic, governed by a president and the National Assembly. The National Assembly is a bicameral parliament comprising the 110-member House of Representatives (the lower house) and the 64-member Council of the Republic (the upper house). The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the prime minister, make constitutional amendments, call for a vote of confidence on the prime minister, and make suggestions on foreign and domestic policy. The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president, and accept or reject the bills passed by the House of Representatives. Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the Constitution of Belarus.[29] Since 1994, Alexander Lukashenko has been the president of Belarus. The government includes a Council of Ministers, headed by the prime minister. The members of this council need not be members of the legislature and are appointed by the president. The judiciary comprises the Supreme Court and specialized courts such as the Constitutional Court, which deals with specific issues related to constitutional and business law. The judges of national courts are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic. For criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the Supreme Court. The Belarusian Constitution forbids the use of special extra-judicial courts.[29] House of Government in Minsk, with a statue to Vladimir Lenin in the foreground As of 2007, 98 of the 110 members the House of Representatives are not affiliated with any political party and the remaining twelve members, eight belong to the Communist Party of Belarus, three to the Agrarian Party of Belarus, and one to the Liberal Democratic Party of Belarus, most of the non-partisans represents a wide scope of social organizations namely worker´s collectives, public associations and civil society organizations. On the other hand, neither the pro-Lukashenko parties, such as the Belarusian Socialist Sporting Party and the Republican Party of Labor and Justice, nor the People's Coalition 5 Plus opposition parties, such as the Belarusian People's Front and the United Civil Party of Belarus, won any seats in the 2004 elections. Organizations such as the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) declared the election "un-free" because of the opposition parties' poor results and media bias in favor of the government.[30] In the country's 2006 presidential election, Lukashenko was opposed by Alaksandar Milinkievic, a candidate representing a coalition of opposition parties, and by Alaksandar Kazulin of the Social Democrats. Kazulin was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding the All Belarusian People's Assembly. Lukashenko won the election with 80% of the vote, but the OSCE and other organizations called the election unfair.[31] Lukashenko has described himself as having an "authoritarian ruling style".[32] Western countries have described Belarus under Lukashenko as a dictatorship; the government has accused the same Western powers of trying to oust Lukashenko.[33] The Council of Europe has barred Belarus from membership since 1997 for undemocratic voting and election irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections.[34] The Belarusian government is also criticized for human rights violations and its actions against non-governmental organizations, independent journalists, national minorities, and opposition politicians.[35][36] Belarus is the only nation in Europe that retains the death penalty for certain crimes during times of peace and war.[37] In testimony to the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice labeled Belarus, among six nations, as part of the "outposts of tyranny".[38] In response, the Belarusian government called the assessment "quite far from reality".[39] [edit] Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of Belarus and Armed Forces of Belarus President Alexander Lukashenko in Cuba, 2006 Belarus and Russia have been close trading partners and diplomatic allies since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Belarus is dependent on Russia for imports of raw materials and for its export market.[40] The Union of Russia and Belarus, a supranational confederation, was established in a 1996–99 series of treaties that called for monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defense policy.[40] Although the future of the Union was in doubt because of Belarus' repeated delays of monetary union, the lack of a referendum date for the draft constitution, and a 2006–07 dispute about petroleum trade.[40] On December 11, 2007, reports emerged that a framework for the new state was discussed between both countries.[41] Belarus was a founder member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); however, recently other CIS members have questioned the effectiveness of the organization.[42] Belarus has trade agreements with several European Union member states (despite other member states' travel ban on Lukashenko and top officials),[43] as well as with its neighbors Lithuania, Poland and Latvia.[44] Bilateral relations with the United States are strained because of the United States State Department's support for various pro-democracy NGOs and because the Belarusian government made it harder for US-based organizations to operate within the country.[45] The 2004 US Belarus Democracy Act continued this trend, authorizing funding for pro-democracy Belarusian NGOs and forbidding loans to the Belarusian government except for humanitarian purposes.[46] Despite this, the two nations cooperate on intellectual property protection, prevention of human trafficking and technology crime, and disaster relief.[47] Belarus has increased cooperation with China, strengthened by the visit of President Lukashenko to China in October 2005.[48] Belarus has strong ties with Syria,[49] which President Lukashenko considers a key partner in the Middle East.[50] In addition to the CIS, Belarus has membership in the Eurasian Economic Community and the Collective Security Treaty Organization.[44] Belarus has been a member of the international Non-Aligned Movement since 1998[51] and a member of the United Nations since its founding in 1945.[52] The Armed Forces of Belarus has three branches: the Army, the Air Force, and the Ministry of Defense joint staff. Colonel-General Leonid Maltsev heads the Ministry of Defense,[53] and Alexander Lukashenko (as president) serves as Commander-in-Chief.[54] The Armed Forces was formed in 1992 using parts of the former Soviet Armed Forces on the new republic's territory. The transformation of the ex-Soviet forces into the Armed Forces of Belarus, which was completed in 1997, reduced the number of its soldiers by 30,000 and restructured its leadership and military formations.[55] Most of Belarus's service members are conscripts, who serve for 12 months if they have higher education or 18 months if they do not.[56] However, demographic decreases in the Belarusians of conscription age have increased the importance of contract soldiers, who numbered 12,000 as of 2001.[57] In 2005, about 1.4% of Belarus's gross domestic product was devoted to military expenditures.[58] Belarus has not expressed a desire to join NATO but has participated in the Individual Partnership Program since 1997.[59] [edit] Provinces and districts Main article: Administrative divisions of Belarus Provinces of Belarus Belarus is divided into six voblasts, or provinces, which are named after the cities that serve as their administrative centers.[60] Each voblast has a provincial legislative authority, called an oblsovet, which is elected by the voblast's residents, and a provincial executive authority called a voblast administration, whose leader is appointed by the president.[61] Voblasts are further subdivided into raions (commonly translated as districts or regions).[60] As with voblasts, each raion has its own legislative authority (raisovet, or raion council) elected by its residents, and an executive authority (raion administration) appointed by higher executive powers. As of 2002, there are six voblasts, 118 raions, 102 towns and 108 urbanized settlements.[62] Minsk is given a special status, due to the city serving as the national capital. Minsk City is run by an executive committee and granted a charter of self-rule by the national government.[63] Voblasts (with administrative centers): Brest Voblast (Brest) Homel Voblast (Homel) Hrodna Voblast (Hrodna) Mahilyow Voblast (Mahilyow) Minsk Voblast (Minsk) Vitsebsk Voblast (Vitsebsk) Special administrative district: Minsk [edit] Geography Main article: Geography of Belarus Vaskowskae reservoir Belarus is landlocked, relatively flat, and contains large tracts of marshy land.[64] According to a 1994 estimate by the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization, 34% of Belarus is covered by forests.[65] Many streams and 11,000 lakes are found in Belarus.[64] Three major rivers run through the country: the Neman, the Pripyat, and the Dnepr. The Neman flows westward towards the Baltic sea and the Pripyat flows eastward to the Dnepr; the Dnepr flows southward towards the Black Sea.[65] Belarus's highest point is Dzyarzhynskaya Hara (Dzyarzhynsk Hill) at 345 metres (1,130 ft), and its lowest point is on the Neman River at 90 metres (300 ft).[64] The average elevation of Belarus is 525 feet (160 m) above sea level.[66] The climate ranges from harsh winters, with average January temperatures at -6 °C (21.2 °F), to cool and moist summers with the average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F).[67] Belarus experiences an average rainfall of 550 to 700 millimeters (21.7 to 27.5 inches).[67] The country experiences a yearly transition from a continental climate to a maritime climate.[64] Horses grazing in Minsk Province Belarus's natural resources include peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas, granite, dolomite (limestone), marl, chalk, sand, gravel, and clay.[64] About 70% of the radiation from neighboring Ukraine's 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster entered Belarusian territory, and as of 2005 about a fifth of Belarusian land (principally farmland and forests in the southeastern provinces) continues to be affected by radiation fallout.[68] The United Nations and other agencies have aimed to reduce the level of radiation in affected areas, especially through the use of caesium binders and rapeseed cultivation, which are meant to decrease soil levels of caesium-137.[69][70] Belarus is bordered by Latvia on the north, Lithuania on the northwest, Poland on the west, Russia on the north and east and Ukraine on the south. Treaties in 1995 and 1996 demarcated Belarus's borders with Latvia and Lithuania, but Belarus failed to ratify a 1997 treaty establishing the Belarus-Ukraine border.[71] Belarus and Lithuania ratified final border demarcation documents in February 2007.[72] [edit] Economy Main article: Economy of Belarus A Belarusian-made tractor being used to farm Most of the Belarusian economy remains state-controlled, as in Soviet times.[40] Thus, 51.2% of Belarusians are employed by state-controlled companies, 47.4% are employed by private Belarusian companies (of which 5.7% are partially foreign-owned), and 1.4% are employed by foreign companies.[73] The country relies on imports such as oil from Russia[74][75] Important agricultural products include potatoes and cattle byproducts, such as meat.[76] As of 1994, the biggest exports of Belarus were heavy machinery, agricultural products, and energy products.[77] Belarusian GDP growth since 1995 and estimate for 2008 Historically important branches of industry include textiles and wood processing.[78] As of the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, Belarus was one of the world's most industrially developed states by percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) as well as the richest CIS state.[79] Economically, Belarus involved itself in the CIS, Eurasian Economic Community, and Union with Russia. During the 1990s, however, industrial production plunged because of decreases in imported inputs, in investment, and in demand for exports from traditional trading partners.[80] It took until 1996 for the gross domestic product to rise;[81] this coincided with the government putting more emphasis on using the GDP for social welfare and state subsidies.[81] The GDP for 2006 was US$83.1 billion in purchasing power parity (PPP) dollars (estimate), or about $8,100 per capita.[76] In 2005, the gross domestic product increased by about 9.9%, with the inflation rate averaging about 9.5%.[76] Belarus's largest trading partner is Russia, accounting for nearly half of total trade in 2006.[82] As of 2006, the European Union was Belarus's next largest trading partner, with which nearly a third of trade was conducted.[83][82] Because of its failure to protect labor rights, however, Belarus lost its E.U. Generalized System of Preferences status on June 21, 2007, which raised tariff rates to their prior most-favored nation levels.[83] Belarus has applied to become a member of the World Trade Organization since 1993.[84] The labor force consists of more than four million people, among whom women hold slightly more jobs than men.[85] In 2005, nearly a quarter of the population was employed in industrial factories.[85] Employment is also high in agriculture, manufacturing sales, trading goods, and education. The unemployment rate, according to Belarusian government statistics, was about 1.5% in 2005.[85] The number of unemployed persons totaled 679,000 of whom about two-thirds are women.[85] The rate of unemployment has been decreasing since 2003, and the overall rate has been lower since statistics were first compiled in 1995.[85] Obverse of the 500 Belarusian ruble (BYB/BYR), the national currency The currency of Belarus is the Belarusian ruble (BYR). The currency was introduced in May 1992, replacing the Soviet ruble. The ruble was reintroduced with new values in 2000 and has been in use ever since.[86] As part of the Union of Russia and Belarus, both states have discussed using a single currency along the same lines as the Euro. This has led to the proposal that the Belarusian ruble be discontinued in favor of the Russian ruble (RUB), starting as early as 1 January 2008. As of August 2007, the National Bank of Belarus is no longer pegging the Belarusian ruble to the Russian ruble.[87] The banking system of Belarus is composed of 30 state-owned banks and one privatized bank.[88] [edit] Demographics Main article: Demographics of Belarus Ethnic Belarusians constitute 81.2% of Belarus's total population.[89] The next largest ethnic groups are Russians (11.4%), Poles (3.9%), and Ukrainians (2.4%).[89] Belarus's two official languages are Belarusian and Russian,[90] spoken at home by 36.7% and 62.8% of Belarusians, respectively.[91] Minorities also speak Polish, Ukrainian and Eastern Yiddish.[92] Belarus has a population density of about 50 people per square kilometre (127 per sq mi); 71.7% of its total population is concentrated in urban areas.[89] Minsk, the nation's capital and largest city, is home to 1,741,400 of Belarus's 9,724,700 residents.[89] Gomel, with 481,000 people, is the second largest city and serves as the capital of the Homel Oblast. Other large cities are Mogilev (365,100), Vitebsk (342,400), Hro