turn to Port Egmont.[21] In 1774, economic pressures leading up to the American Revolutionary War forced Great Britain to withdraw from many overseas settlements.[21][22] Upon withdrawal the British left behind a plaque asserting her continued claim. Spain maintained its governor until 1806 who, on his departure, left behind a plaque asserting Spanish claims. The remaining settlers were withdrawn by the United Provinces of the River Plate in 1811.[21] In 1820, storm damage forced the privateer Heroína to take shelter in the islands.[23] Her captain David Jewett raised the flag of the United Provinces of the River Plate and read a proclamation claiming the islands.[23] This became public knowledge in Buenos Aires nearly a year later following the publication of the proclamation in the Salem Gazette.[23] After several abortive attempts, Luis Vernet established a settlement in 1828 after seeking authorisation from both British and Argentine authorities.[24] A dispute over fishing and hunting rights resulted in a raid by the US warship USS Lexington in 1831.[24][25] The log of the Lexington reports only the destruction of arms and a powder store, though in his claim against the US Government for compensation (rejected by the US Government of President Cleveland in 1885) Vernet stated that the settlement was destroyed.[24] The Islands were declared free from all government, the seven senior members of the settlement were arrested for piracy[26] and taken to Montevideo,[25] where they were released without charge on the orders of Commodore Rogers.[27] In November 1832, Argentina sent Commander Mestivier as an interim commander to found a penal settlement, but he was killed in a mutiny after 4 days.[28] The following January, British forces returned and requested the Argentine garrison leave. Don Pinedo, captain of the ARA Sarandi and senior officer present, protested but ultimately complied. Vernet's settlement continued, with the Irishman William Dickson tasked with raising the British flag for passing ships. Vernet's deputy, Matthew Brisbane, returned and was encouraged by the British to continue with the enterprise.[29][30][31] The settlement continued until August 1833, when the leaders were killed in the so-called Gaucho murders. Subsequently, from 1834 the islands were governed as a naval station until 1840 when the British Government decided to establish a permanent colony.[32] Road sign to the capital A new harbour was built in Stanley,[33] and the islands became a strategic point for navigation around Cape Horn. A World War I naval battle, the Battle of the Falkland Islands, took place in December 1914, with a British victory over the smaller Imperial German Asiatic Fleet.[34] During World War II, Stanley served as a Royal Navy station and serviced ships which took part in the 1939 Battle of the River Plate.[35] Sovereignty over the islands became an issue in the second half of the 20th century, when Argentina saw the creation of the UN as an opportunity to pursue its claim. Talks between British and Argentine foreign missions took place in the 1960s but failed to come to any meaningful conclusion. A major sticking point in all the negotiations was that the inhabitants preferred that the islands remain British territory.[36] A result of these talks, was the establishment of the islands' first air link. In 1971, the Argentine state airline LADE began a service between Comodoro Rivadavia and Stanley. A temporary strip was followed by the construction of a permanent airfield and flights between Stanley and Comodoro Rivadavia continued until 1982.[37][38][39] Further agreements gave YPF, the Argentine national oil and gas company, a monopoly over the supply of the islands' energy needs.[40] Falklands War and its aftermath Main article: Falklands War British paratroopers guard Argentine prisoners of war On 2 April 1982, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands and other British territories in the South Atlantic. The military junta which had ruled Argentina since 1976 sought to maintain power by diverting public attention from the nation's poor economic performance and exploiting the long-standing feelings of the Argentines towards the islands.[41] Several British writers hold that the United Kingdom's reduction in military capacity in the South Atlantic also encouraged the invasion.[42][43][44] The United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 502, calling on Argentina to withdraw forces from the Islands and for both parties to seek a diplomatic solution.[45] International reaction ranged from support for Argentina in Latin American countries (except Chile, Colombia and Trinidad and Tobago), to opposition in the Commonwealth and Europe (apart from Spain).[citation needed] A divided United States administration, initially publicly neutral, eventually came out in support of the United Kingdom.[46] The British sent an expeditionary force to retake the islands, leading to the Falklands War. After short but fierce naval and air battles, the British landed at San Carlos Water on 21 May, and a land campaign followed leading to the British taking the high ground surrounding Stanley on 11 June. The Argentine forces surrendered on 14 June 1982. The war resulted in the deaths of 255 British and 649 Argentine soldiers, sailors and airmen, as well as 3 civilian Falklanders.[47] After the war, the British increased their military presence on the islands, constructing RAF Mount Pleasant and increasing the military garrison.[48] Although the United Kingdom and Argentina resumed diplomatic relations in 1990, no further negotiations on sovereignty have taken place.[49] Between 18,000 and 25,000 Argentine land mines remain from the 1982 war dispersed in a number of minefields around Port Stanley, Port Howard, Fox Bay and Goose Green.[50] Information is available from the Explosive Ordnance Disposal Operation Centre in Stanley.[50] In 2009 mine clearance began at Surf Bay, and further clearances took place at Sapper Hill, Goose Green and Fox Bay. Further clearance work was due to begin in 2011.[51] Sovereignty dispute Main article: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute A sign at the Argentine-Brazilian border, translated into English, proclaims "The Malvinas are Argentine". There are several signs like this in the country Although the United Nations Committee on Decolonization includes the Falkland Islands on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories,[52] it has been asserted that the Falkland Islands is one of 16 territories which have too small a population "to survive as viable, fully independent state."[53] Both the United Kingdom and the Argentine governments claim responsibility for the islands. United Kingdom bases its claim on continuous administration of the islands since 1833 (apart from the Argentine military occupation in 1982) and the Islanders’ "right to self determination, including their right to remain British if that is their wish".[54] Argentina claims that it acquired the islands from Spain when Argentina became independent in 1811 and that the United Kingdom exceeded their authority by expelling the Argentine settlers in 1833.[55] The islanders reject the Argentine sovereignty claim.[8] Before the Falklands War Shortly after the formation of the United Nations in 1945, Argentina asserted its right to sovereignty over the Falkland Islands. In 1947, the United Kingdom offered to submit the case to the International Court of Justice at The Hague, but Argentina refused the offer. A unilateral application by the United Kingdom in 1955 to the Court in respect of Argentine encroachment ended in deadlock when Argentina announced that it would not respect the decision of the court.[56] In the late 1960s, as part of the United Kingdom's decolonisation policy, secret discussions were held by the British and Argentine governments to identify a means by which the United Kingdom could cede the islands to Argentina while protecting the rights and way of life of the Islanders. Details of the talks were leaked and the islanders protested against the talks having taken place. Subsequently however, economic and transport links between Argentina and the Islands were established, but the political situation remained unchanged.[57] In April 1982, four months after Leopoldo Galtieri became President of Argentina, Argentine military forces invaded the islands, leading to the Falklands War. After the Falklands War The dispute over control of the islands has continued since the Falklands War,[55] although diplomatic relations between Argentina and the UK were resumed in 1990.[49] In 1994, Argentina added its claim to the islands to the Argentine constitution, stating that this claim must be pursued in a manner "respectful of the way of life of their inhabitants and according to the principles of international law".[58] Since the war, successive Argentine governments have stated their intention to pursue their claim to the islands by peaceful means. Kirchner, campaigning for president in 2003, regarded the islands as a top priority, taking actions such as banning flights to the Falklands from Argentine airspace. In June 2003 the issue was brought before a United Nations committee, and attempts have been made to open talks with the United Kingdom to resolve the issue of the islands.[49] In 1998, in retaliation for the arrest in London of the former Chilean president Augusto Pinochet, the Chilean government banned flights between Punta Arenas and Port Stanley, thus isolating the islands from the rest of the world. Uruguay and Brazil refused to authorise direct flights between their territories and Port Stanley. This forced the Islands' government to enter negotiations with the Argentine government and led to Argentina authorising direct flights between its territory and Stanley, on condition that Argentine citizens be allowed on the islands.[59] Argentine President Cristina Fernández with British Prime Minister Gordon Brown in 2009 In 2007, 25 years after the war, Argentina reasserted its claim over the Falkland Islands, asking for the UK to resume talks on sovereignty.[60] In March 2009, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown stated in a meeting with Argentine President Cristina Fernández that there would be no talks over the future sovereignty of the Falkland Islands.[61] As far as the governments of the UK and of the Falkland Islands are concerned, there is no issue to resolve. The Falkland Islanders consider themselves as almost entirely British and maintain their allegiance to the United Kingdom.[62][63][64] In October 2007 a British spokeswoman confirmed that Britain intended to submit a claim[65] to the UN to extend seabed territory around the Falklands and South Georgia, in advance of the expiry of the deadline[66] for territorial claims following Britain's ratification of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention.[67] This claim would enable Britain to control activities such as fishing within the zone, in areas not conflicting with the Antarctic Treaty.[68] Argentina has indicated it will challenge any British claim to Antarctic territory and the area around the Falkland Islands and South Georgia.[69] Argentina made a similar claim in 2009,[70] and the United Kingdom quickly protested against these claims.[71] In 2009, when delegates from the Falkland Islands were invited to the World Summit on Fishing Sustainability, the Argentine delegation protested and walked out of the conference.[49] In February 2010, the Argentine government announced that ships traversing Argentine territorial waters en route to the Falklands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands would require a permit, as part of a dispute over British oil exploration near the Falklands. The British and Falkland governments stated that Falklands-controlled waters were unaffected.[72] Politics and government Main article: Politics of the Falkland Islands The islands are a British Overseas Territory which, under the 2009 Constitution, enjoys a large degree of internal self government with the United Kingdom guaranteeing good government and taking responsibility for defence and foreign affairs.[7][73] Arms of Government Executive authority is vested in the Queen and is exercised by the Governor on her behalf. The Governor is also responsible for the administration of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, as these islands have no native inhabitants. The governor acts on the advice of the Executive Council, composed of himself as chairman, the Chief Executive, Director of Finance and three elected Legislative Assembly Members.[73] The current Governor Nigel Haywood took office in October 2010.[2] The Legislative Assembly consists of the Chief Executive, Director of Finance and the eight members elected for four-year terms by universal suffrage, of whom five are from Stanley and three from Camp.[73] It is presided over by the Speaker, currently Keith Biles. Justice is administered by a resident senior magistrate and a non-resident Chief Justice of the Islands who visits the islands at least once a year. The senior magistrate handles petty criminal cases, civil, commercial, admiralty and family cases and is also the island's coroner. The chief justice handles serious criminal cases and hears appeals.[74] The constitution binds the judiciary to comply with decisions of the European Court of Human Rights when hearing cases related to human rights.[73] Military Main article: Military of the Falkland Islands Badge of the Falkland Islands Defence Force Although a British military garrison is stationed on the Falkland Islands, the islands have a company-sized light infantry unit (FIDF) that is completely funded by the Falklands government (£400,000 in 2009).[75] The unit is trained under a secondment arrangement with the MOD – as of 2010 the FIDF employed a Royal Marine WO2 as a permanent staff instructor and a major as commanding officer; the rest of the force are part-timers. It is equipped with quad bikes, inflatable boats and Land Rovers and is armed with heavy machineguns, grenade launchers and sniper rifles. In addition to defence duties, the force provides a mountain rescue service and has been trained by the Royal Navy in mounting armed deterrence against illegal fishing activity.[75][76] Education Main article: Education in the Falkland Islands There are approximately 380 children between the ages of 5 and 16 on the islands (excluding families of military personnel).[77] Their education, which follows the English system, is free and compulsory. Primary education is available at Stanley where there are boarding facilities, at RAF Mount Pleasant for children of service personnel and at a number of rural settlements where remote learning is supported by the Stanley based Camp Education Unit. The Islands' only secondary school is in Stanley and offers boarding facilities and 12 subjects to GCSE level. After 16, suitably qualified students may study at two colleges in England for their A-levels or for vocational qualifications. The government pays for older students to attend higher education, usually in the UK.[78] Medical care The Falkland Islands Government Health and Social Services Department provides medical and dental care for the islands.[79] The King Edward VII Memorial Hospital (KEMH), completed in 1987, is Stanley's only hospital. It is run jointly by the Falkland Islands Government and the UK Ministry of Defence.[80] Specialist medical care is provided by visiting ophthalmologists, gynaecologists, ENT surgeons, orthopaedic surgeons, oral surgeons and psychiatrists from the United Kingdom. Patients needing emergency treatment are air-lifted to the United Kingdom or to Santiago (Chile).[79][81] Geography Main article: Geography of the Falkland Islands Map of the Falkland Islands The Falkland Islands are located in the South Atlantic Ocean on a projection of the Patagonian continental shelf about 250 nautical miles (288 mi; 463 km) from the Patagonia coastline and slightly to the north of the southerly tip of Cape Horn and of its undersea extension, the Scotia Arc. In ancient geological time this shelf was part of Gondwana, which around 400 million years ago broke from what is now Africa and drifted westwards relative to Africa.[82] The Falklands, which has a total land area is 4,700 square miles (12,173 km2) and a coastline estimated at 800 miles (1288 km),[4] comprise two main islands, West Falkland and East Falkland and about 776 small islands. The islands are heavily indented by sounds and fjords and have many natural harbours.[83] The two main islands are separated by the Falkland Sound which averages 12 miles (20 km) in width. Much of the northern part of the sound which is clear water approaches 40 metres (22 fathoms) in depth, but the southern part, which has many flat islands and some shoals, has a number of channels that are much deeper.[84][85][86][87][original research?] San Carlos Water, one of many inlets on East Falkland East Falkland, which contains the capital Stanley and the British military base at Mount Pleasant, is the more populous of the two main islands.[88] Both West Falkland and the northern part of East Falkland have mountain ranges that are underlaid with Palaeozoic rock, which, as a result of secondary forces associated with continental drift are at 120° to each other.[89] The highest point of the islands is Mount Usborne, 705 metres (2,313 ft) on East Falkland, while Mount Adam on West Falkland is only 5 metres (16 ft) lower.[88] The southern part of East Falkland, the Lafonia Peninsula, which is connected to the rest of the island by a 4 km narrow isthmus, is dissimilar to the rest of the island. Most of Lafonia is a flat plain underlain by younger Mesozoic rock, but in the north west is Permian rock which similar to that of parts of Ecca Pass in South Africa.[89][90] The islands claim a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles (13.8 mi; 22.2 km) and an Exclusive Economic Zone of 200 nautical miles (230.2 mi; 370.4 km), which has been a source of disagreement with Argentina. Climate Main article: Climate of the Falkland Islands The Falkland Islands have a Maritime Subarctic climate (Koppen Cfc) that is very much influenced by the cool South Atlantic ocean and its northerly Patagonian current giving it a narrow annual temperature range. The January average maximum temperature is about 13°C (55°F), and the July maximum average temperature is about 4°C (39°F). The average annual rainfall is 573.6 millimetres (22.58 inches) with East Falkland being generally wetter than West Falkland.[91] Humidity and winds are however constantly high. Snow and sleet are frequent in winter, although snowfall is rarely deep. Gales are very frequent, particularly in winter.[92] The climate is similar to that of the Shetland islands in the United Kingdom, but with less rainfall and longer and slightly more severe winters.[92] Climate data for Stanley, Falkland Islands Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 24 (75) 23 (73) 21 (70) 17 (63) 14 (57) 11 (52) 10 (50) 11 (52) 15 (59) 18 (64) 22 (72) 22 (72) 24 (75) Average high °C (°F) 13 (55) 13 (55) 12 (54) 9 (48) 7 (45) 5 (41) 4 (39) 5 (41) 7 (45) 9 (48) 11 (52) 12 (54) 8.9 (48.1) Average low °C (°F) 6 (43) 5 (41) 4 (39) 3 (37) 1 (34) -1 (30) -1 (30) -1 (30) 1 (34) 2 (36) 3 (37) 4 (39) 2.2 (35.9) Record low °C (°F) -1 (30) -1 (30) -3 (27) -6 (21) -7 (19) -11 (12) -9 (16) -11 (12) -11 (12) -6 (21) -3 (27) -2 (28) -11 (12) Precipitation mm (inches) 71 (2.8) 58 (2.28) 64 (2.52) 66 (2.6) 66 (2.6) 53 (2.09) 51 (2.01) 51 (2.01) 38 (1.5) 41 (1.61) 51 (2.01) 71 (2.8) 681 (26.81) % humidity 78 79 82 86 88 89 89 87 84 80 75 77 82.8 Source: BBC Weather[93] Biodiversity Main article: Wildlife of the Falkland Islands B