of Jewish conversos from Córdoba and Seville, led by Pedro de Herrera in exchange for maintaining the garrison of the town for two years. A group of 4,350 Jews established themselves in the town. However, this lasted only two years.[13] In 1476, the Duke of Medina Sidonia expelled the Conversos to Córdoba and the Inquisition. In 1501 Gibraltar passed again under the hands of the Spanish Crown, which had been established in 1479. In 1501, in Toledo, Isabella of Castile issued a Royal Warrant granting Gibraltar the coat of arms that it still uses today. The naval Battle of Gibraltar took place on 25 April 1607 during the Eighty Years' War when a Dutch fleet surprised and engaged a Spanish fleet anchored at the Bay of Gibraltar. During the four-hour action, the entire Spanish fleet was destroyed. The British period During the War of the Spanish Succession, English [14] and Dutch troops, allies of Archduke Charles, the Austrian pretender to the Spanish Crown, formed a joint fleet and attacked various towns on the southern coast of Spain. On 4 August 1704, after six hours of bombardment starting at 5:00 am, the fleet, under the command of Admiral Sir George Rooke, assisted by Field Marshal Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt, comprising some 1800 Dutch marines and the English Royal Marines, captured the town of Gibraltar and claimed it in the name of the Archduke Charles. The terms of surrender provided certain assurances but commanders lost control, drunken sailors and marines engaged in rape and pillaged the town, desecrating most Catholic churches, whilst townspeople carried out reprisal killings[15][16][16][17][18][19]. By 7 August 1704, after order was restored, almost all the population felt that staying in Gibraltar was too dangerous and left without further violence for nearby areas of Spain. Franco-Spanish troops failed to retake the town. The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the war, awarded Britain sovereignty over Gibraltar. In this treaty, Spain ceded Gibraltar (Article X) and Minorca (Article XI) to the United Kingdom in perpetuity. Great Britain has retained sovereignty over Gibraltar (though not Minorca) ever since, despite attempts by Spain to recapture it. Due to military incursions by Spain various fortifications were established and occupied by British troops in the area which came to be known as "the British Neutral Ground". This was the area to the north of the city wall, militarily conquered and continuously occupied by the British except during time of war. (The sovereignty of this area, which today contains the airport, cemetery, a number of housing estates and the sports centre, is separately disputed by Spain.) Great Siege of Gibraltar, 13 September 1782. During the American Revolution, the Spanish, who had entered the conflict against the British, imposed a stringent blockade against Gibraltar as part of an unsuccessful siege (the Great Siege of Gibraltar) that lasted for more than three years, from 1779 to 1783. On 14 September 1782, the British destroyed the floating batteries of the French and Spanish besiegers. The signing of peace preliminaries in February 1783 ended the siege.[20] Gibraltar subsequently became a key base for the Royal Navy, first playing an important part prior to the Battle of Trafalgar. Its strategic value increased with the opening of the Suez Canal as it controlled the sea route between the UK and its colonies and Dominions east of Suez, such as India and Australia. Spanish Civil War After Britain recognised the Franco regime in 1938,[citation needed] Gibraltar had two Spanish Consulates, a Republican one and a Nationalistic one. During the Spanish Civil War there were several incidents that touched Gibraltar. In May 1937, HMS Arethusa had to tow HMS Hunter into port after Hunter hit a mine off Almeria that killed and wounded several British sailors. In June 1937, the German pocket battleship Deutschland arrived in Gibraltar with dead and wounded after Republican planes bombed it in Ibiza in retaliation for the Condor Legion's bombing of Guernica. In August 1938, the Republican destroyer Jose Luis Diez took refuge in Gibraltar after taking casualties from the guns of the National cruiser Canarias. The one incident that resulted in the death of Gibraltarians occurred in January 1938 when a submarine of unknown origin, though probably Italian, sank the SS Endymion, a small freighter taking a cargo of coal to Cartagena, which was in Republican hands.[21] World War II Wladyslaw Sikorski's memorial in Gibraltar. He led Poland’s government in exile during World War II, died on 4 July 1943, when the British bomber he was in crashed into the sea after taking off from Gibraltar.[22] See also: Military history of Gibraltar during World War II and Operation Felix During World War II, the British evacuated Gibraltar's women and children and turned the Rock into a fortress. They also converted the civilian racecourse into an airfield. Spain's reluctance to allow the German Army onto Spanish soil frustrated a German plan to capture the Rock, codenamed Operation Felix, later named Llona. Germany's Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, head of the Abwehr, secretly opposed Adolf Hitler and the Nazis, and filed a pointedly negative assessment of the options. Hitler sent Canaris to negotiate with Franco, but, according to some sources, Canaris privately told Franco it would be foolish for him to join or cooperate with the Axis.[23] Franco subsequently made exorbitant demands for his cooperation, and erected concrete barriers on roads leading to the Pyrenees.[24] Recent history In the 1950s, Spain, under the dictatorship of Franco, renewed its claim to sovereignty over Gibraltar, sparked in part by the visit of Queen Elizabeth II in 1954 to celebrate the 250th anniversary of the Rock's capture. For the next thirty years, Spain restricted movement between Gibraltar and Spain, in application of one of the articles of the Treaty. Gibraltar's first sovereignty referendum was held on 10 September 1967, in which Gibraltar's voters were asked whether they wished either to pass under Spanish sovereignty (when Spain was under the dictatorship of Franco), or remain under British sovereignty, with institutions of self-government. The vote was overwhelmingly in favour of continuance of British sovereignty, with 12,138 to 44 voting to reject Spanish sovereignty. This led to the passing of the Gibraltar Constitution Order, granting autonomy in May 1969, which the Government of Spain strongly opposed. In response, in June Spain completely closed the border with Gibraltar and severed all communication links.[25] View of the frontier from the Spanish side. In 1981 it was announced that the honeymoon for the royal wedding between Prince Charles and Diana Spencer would start from Gibraltar. The Spanish Government responded that King Juan Carlos and Queen Sofia had declined their invitation to the ceremony as an act of protest.[26] The border with Spain was partially reopened in 1982, and fully reopened in 1985 prior to Spain's accession into the European Community. Joint talks on the future of The Rock held between Spain and the United Kingdom have occurred since the late 1980s under the Brussels Agreement. In July 2002 proposals for joint sovereignty with Spain were revealed by British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw. A second sovereignty referendum was organised in Gibraltar in November 2002, which rejected any idea of joint sovereignty by 17,900 (98.97%) votes to 187 (1.03%). The British Government restated that, in accordance with the preamble of the Constitution of Gibraltar that "the UK will never enter into arrangements under which the people of Gibraltar would pass under the sovereignty of another state against their freely and democratically expressed wishes."[27] "La Cuestión de Gibraltar" (Spanish: "The Question of Gibraltar"), as it is termed by Spain, continues to affect Spain–United Kingdom relations. September 2006 saw representatives of the United Kingdom, Gibraltar and Spain conclude talks in Córdoba, Spain, with a landmark agreement on a range of issues affecting the Rock and the Campo de Gibraltar removing some of the restrictions imposed by Spain.[28] This agreement resolved a number of longstanding problems; improved flow of traffic at the frontier, use of the airport,[29] recognition of the +350 telephone code and the settlement of the long-running dispute regarding the pensions of former Spanish workers in Gibraltar who lost their jobs when Spain closed its border in 1969.[30] The Trilateral process is ongoing, and the British Government now states as policy that it will not enter into talks about sovereignty with Spain without the consent of the Government and people of the territory.[31] In December 2008, Gibraltar won its EU case on regional selectivity providing for a new tax system.[32] A public holiday in January 2009 was announced to celebrate this milestone.[33] In May 2009 there were a number of Spanish incursions into waters around Gibraltar, claimed as territorial waters by both the United Kingdom and Spain plus an incursion into the port area which is not disputed, leading to intervention by the Gibraltar Police and a diplomatic protest by the UK.[34][35] In July 2009 Miguel Ángel Moratinos, became the first serving Spanish foreign minister to visit Gibraltar for a meeting of the trilateral forum.[citation needed] Politics Main article: Politics of Gibraltar Parliament of Gibraltar Chief Minister of Gibraltar, Peter Caruana QC Governor of Gibraltar, Sir Adrian Johns The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor of Gibraltar. Under its 2006 Constitution Gibraltar is internally self-governing with an elected parliament.[5][36][37][38] Defence, foreign policy and internal security are formally the responsibility of the Governor, the representative of HM the Queen as head of State, who is responsible for judicial and other appointments made on her behalf in consultation with the head of the elected government.[39][40][41][42][43][43][44] Gibraltar nonetheless remains on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories[45] though politicians both from the British Foreign Office[46] and Gibraltar wish to see it removed citing that Gibraltar has effectively been decolonised.[47] Spain opposes any attempt to remove it from the list.[48] The Parliament of Gibraltar is elected for a term of up to four years. The head of Government is the Chief Minister, currently Peter Caruana QC. The Government consists of ten elected members. The unicameral Parliament presently consists of seventeen elected members, and the Speaker who is not elected, but appointed by a resolution of the Parliament.[49] There are three political parties currently represented in the Parliament: the governing Gibraltar Social Democrats (GSD), and two opposition parties - the Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party (GSLP) and the Gibraltar Liberal Party which are in an electoral alliance and form a single parliamentary grouping. The 2007 election was contested by the GSD, GSLP-Liberal Alliance, the PDP and two independents. Two parties which fielded candidates in the 2003 election did not present candidates in the 2006 election; the Reform Party was wound up and Gibraltar Labour Party absorbed into the GSD in a merger in 2005. A new party, the Progressive Democratic Party (PDP) was formed in 2006 and fielded candidates in the 2007 election, but none were elected. Gibraltar is a part of the European Union, having joined under the British Treaty of Accession (1973), with exemption from some areas such as the Customs Union and Common Agricultural Policy. After a ten-year campaign to exercise the right to vote in European Elections, from 2004, the people of Gibraltar participated in elections for the European Parliament as part of the South West England constituency.[50] In March 2006, British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw announced that a new Gibraltar constitution had been agreed upon and would be published prior to a referendum on its acceptance in Gibraltar that year.[citation needed] In July, in a statement to the UK Parliament, Geoff Hoon, the Minister for Europe, stated that the new Constitution "confirms the right of self-determination of the Gibraltarian people", but mentioned that this right is limited insofar as Article X of the Treaty of Utrecht "gives Spain the right of refusal should Britain ever renounce Sovereignty".[51] On 30 November 2006, a referendum was held to approve a new constitution. The turnout was 60.4% of eligible voters, of whom 60.24% voted to approve the constitution; 37.75% voted against. The remainder returned blank votes. The Chief Minister, Peter Caruana, welcomed the result as a step forward for Gibraltar's political development. All local political parties oppose any transfer of sovereignty to Spain, instead supporting self-determination. The main UK opposition parties also support this policy and it is currently UK Government policy not to engage in talks about the sovereignty of Gibraltar without the consent of the people of Gibraltar.[52] Geography See also: Rock of Gibraltar, Bay of Gibraltar, and Strait of Gibraltar The Rock of Gibraltar, West Side town area, 2006 A view of the Rock of Gibraltar from the south A view from the Rock of Gibraltar looking north Satellite view of the Bay of Gibraltar (NASA) The territory covers 6.843 square kilometres (2.642 sq mi). It shares a 1.2 km (0.75 mi) land border with Spain. On the Spanish side is the town La Línea de la Concepción, a municipality of Cádiz province. The part of Cádiz province next to Gibraltar is called Campo de Gibraltar, literally Gibraltar Countryside. The shoreline measures 12 km (7.5 mi) in length. There are two coasts (sides) of Gibraltar– the East Side, which contains the settlements of Sandy Bay and Catalan Bay, and the Westside, where the vast majority of the population lives. Having negligible natural resources and few natural freshwater resources, limited to natural wells in the north, until recently Gibraltar used large concrete or natural rock water catchments to collect water. Fresh water from the boreholes is supplemented by two desalination plants: a reverse osmosis plant, constructed in a tunnel within the rock, and a multi-stage flash distillation plant at North Mole.[53] The Rock itself is made of limestone and is 426 metres (1,398 ft) high. It contains many tunnelled roads, most of which are operated by the military and closed to the public. Flora and fauna See also: List of mammals of Gibraltar, List of birds of Gibraltar, and List of reptiles and amphibians of Gibraltar Gibraltar candytuft (Iberis gibraltarica) in The Alameda Gibraltar Botanic Gardens Over 500 different species of flowering plants grow on The Rock. One of them, the Gibraltar candytuft (Iberis gibraltarica), is endemic to Gibraltar, being the only place in Europe where it is found growing in the wild. It is the symbol of the Upper Rock nature reserve. Among the wild trees that grow all around The Rock, olive and pine trees are some of the most common. Most of its upper area is covered by a nature reserve, which is home to around 230 Barbary Macaques, commonly known as apes, the only wild monkeys found in Europe.[54] They sometimes visit the town area. Recent genetic studies and historical documents point to their presence on the Rock before its capture by the British. A superstition analogous to that of the ravens at the Tower of London states that if the monkeys ever leave, so will the British. In 1944 British leader Winston Churchill was so concerned about the dwindling monkey population that he sent a message to the Colonial Secretary requesting that something be done about the situation.[55] Other mammals found in Gibraltar include rabbits, foxes and bats. Dolphins and whales are frequently seen in the Bay of Gibraltar. Migrating birds are very common and Gibraltar is home to the only specimens of Barbary Partridges found on the European continent. Climate The climate is Mediterranean / Subtropical with mild winters and warm summers. There are two main prevailing winds, an easterly one known as the Levante coming from the Sahara in Africa which brings humid weather and warmer sea and the other as Poniente which is westerly and brings fresher air in and colder sea. Its terrain consists of the 430 metre[56] (1,400 ft) high Rock of Gibraltar and the narrow coastal lowland surrounding it. Rain occurs mainly in winter, the summers are generally dry. Its average annual temperature is 18 °C (64 °F): 21 °C (70 °F) during the day and 15 °C (59 °F) at night. In the coldest month - January, the typically temperature ranges from 10–17 °C (50–63 °F) during the day, 5–12 °C (41–54 °F) at night, the average sea temperature is 15–16 °C (59–61 °F). In the warmest month - August, the typically temperature ranges from 25–31 °C (77–88 °F) during the day, above 20 °C (68 °F) at night, the average sea temperature is 22 °C (72 °F). Average number of days above 21 °C (70 °F) is 181, average number of days above 32 °C (90 °F) is 5-6 (2 in July, 3 in August). Average morning relative humidity: 82%, evening relative humidity: 64%.[57] Sunshine hours is till 2,778 per year, from 150 in November (5 hours of sunshine every day) to 341 in July (11 hours of sunshine every day).[58] Climate data for Gibraltar Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 16 (61) 16 (61) 17 (63) 18 (64) 21 (70) 24 (75) 27 (81) 27 (81) 26 (79) 21 (70) 18 (64) 16 (61) 21 (70) Daily mean °C (°F) 13 (55) 13 (55) 15 (59) 16 (61) 18 (64) 21 (70) 23 (73) 24 (75) 22 (72) 19 (66) 16 (61) 14 (57) 18 (64) Average low °C (°F) 11 (52) 11 (52) 12 (54) 13 (55) 15 (59) 17 (63) 20 (68) 20 (68) 20 (68) 16 (61) 13 (55) 12 (54) 15 (59) Precipitation cm (inches) 12 (4.7) 10 (3.9) 10 (3.9) 6 (2.4) 3 (1.2) 1 (0.4) 0 (0) 0 (0) 2 (0.8) 7 (2.8) 14 (5.5) 13 (5.1) 83 (32.7) Source: Weatherbase[59] Subdivisions Map of Gibraltar Gibraltar has no administrative divisions. It is, however, divided into seven Major Residential Areas, which are further divided into Enumeration Areas, used for statistical purposes.[60] The Major Residential Areas are listed below, with population figures from the Census of 2001: Residential area Population  % of total 1. East Side 429 1.56% 2. North District 4,116 14.97% 3. Reclamation Areas 9,599 34.91% 4. Sandpits Area 2,207 8.03% 5. South District 4,257 15.48% 6. Town Area 3,588 13.05% 7. Upper Town 2,805 10.20% Remainder 494 1.79% Gibraltar 27,495 100% Economy Main article: Economy of Gibraltar The barbary macaques form an integral part of Tourism in Gibraltar The Rock of Gibraltar as seen from the northern end of Eastern Beach. The British military traditionally dominated the economy of Gibraltar, with the naval dockyard providing the bulk of economic activity. This has however diminished in the last twenty years, and it is estimated to account for only 7% of the local economy, compared to over 60% in 1984. Today, Gibraltar has an extensive service-based economy, dominated by financial services and tourism. Recently, many bookmakers and online gaming operators have relocated to Gibraltar to benefit from operating in a regulated jurisdiction with a favourable corporate tax regime. However, this corporate tax regime for non-resident controlled companies is due to be phased out by 2010.[61] Tourism is also a significant industry. Gibraltar is a popular stop for cruise ships and attracts day visitors from resorts in Spain. The Rock is a popular tourist attraction, particularly among British tourists and residents in the southern co