d the 0 °C (32 °F). The western part of the country receives greater precipitation during the winter season from November to March and snowfall in Amman (756 m (2,480 ft) ~ 980 m (3,215 ft) above sea-level) and Western Heights of 500 m (1,640 ft). Excluding the rift valley the rest of the country is entirely above 300 m (984 ft)(SL).[4] [edit] Administrative Divisions Image:Jordan Governorates named.svg Governorates of Jordan Main articles: Governorates of Jordan and Nahias of Jordan Administratively, Jordan is divided into 12 provinces called governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the king. They are the sole authorities for all government departments and development projects in their respective areas. The Governorates are: Province Population (2008 est.) [5] Capital city Population (Metropolitan, 2008 est)[6] Ajlun Governorate 118,496 Ajlun 8,161 Amman Governorate 1,939,405 Amman 1,135,733 Aqaba Governorate 107,115 Aqaba 95,408 Balqa Governorate 349,580 Assalt 87,778 Irbid Governorate 950,700 Irbid 650,000 Jerash Governorate 156,680 Jerash 39,540 Kerak Governorate 214,225 Kerak 22,580 Ma'an Governorate 103,920 Ma'an 30,050 Madaba Governorate 135,890 Madaba 83,180 Mafraq Governorate 245,670 Mafraq 56,340 Tafilah Governorate 81,000 Tafilah Zarqa Governorate 838,250 Zarqa 447,880 The Governorates are subdivided into approximately fifty-two nahias. [edit] Demographics Graph showing the population of Jordan from 1960 to 2005. Main article: Demographics of Jordan The Jordan National Census for the year 2004, which was released on October 1st of the same year, gave the following results: 1. As of October 1st 2004, Jordan had a population of 5,100,981. The census estimated that there are another 190,000 who were not counted (for being out of the country at the time the census was taken, or did not turn in their forms). 2. The census showed that the national growth rate was 2.5% (at maximum) compared to 3.3% of the 1994 census. 3. The census of 2004 also shows that males made up 51.5% of Jordan's population (2,628,717). Females: 2,472,264 (48.5%). 4. Jordanian citizens made up 93% of the population (4,750,463), while non Jordanins made up 7% (349,933). However, it is estimated that most of those who did not turn in their forms were immigrants from neighboring countries, or non Arabic-speaking foreigners. 5. There were 946,000 families in Jordan in 2004, with an average of 5.3 persons/family (compared to 6 persons/family for the census of 1994) [7] The next census is scheduled to take place in 2014. During the years 2004-2007, Jordan saw a rapid increase in its population due to the heavy immigration of Iraqis, an independent census carried in 2007, estimated that there are 700,000 Iraqis residing in Jordan. Most estimates put the population of Jordan slightly over 6,000,000 as of the year 2007. 95% of Jordan's population are Arabs. Jordanian Arabs make 55% of the population and a large portion of the population (approximately 40%) are of Palestinian extraction,[8] who fled from Palestine to Transjordan and gained citizenship after the Arab-Israeli wars in 1948 and 1967, the remaining non-Arabs of the population are mainly Circassians, Chechens, Armenians (13th largest in the world), Dom and Kurds, but have integrated into the Jordanian and Arab cultures in the country.Many Native Jordanians are also of European origin assimilated into the Arabophone genepool that has resulted from the vast history of civilisations on its land.[citation needed]. The number of Lebanese permanently settling in Jordan since the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict has not been established, and is estimated to be very little. According to Labour Ministry figures, the number of guest workers in the country now stands just over 300,000, most are Egyptians who makeup 227,000 of the foreign labor, and the remaining 36,150 workers are mostly from Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka and India. Since the Iraq War many Christians (Assyrians and Chaldeans) from Iraq have settled permanently or temporarily in Jordan. Jordanian Christians permanently residing in Jordan form approximately 12% of the population and have 20% of the seats in parliament.[citation needed] (reason for which is a good percentage of expatriate communities of Jordanians abroad are Christian - original percentage should read 12%) Most Christians belong to the Greek Orthodox church (called "Room Urthudux" in Arabic). The rest are Roman Catholics (called "Lateen"), Eastern Catholics (called "Room Katoleek" to distinguish them from "Western Catholics"), and various Protestant communities including Baptists. Christians in Jordan are of many nationalities, as evinced, for example, by the Catholic mass being celebrated in Arabic, English, French, Italian, Spanish, Tagalog and Sinhala, as well as in Iraqi dialects of Arabic. However, Jordanian Christians are indigenous Arabs that share the Greater culture of Jordan and the Broader East Mediterranean Levantine Arab Identity. Other Jordanians belonging to religious minorities include adherents to the Druze and Bahá'í Faith, which fall administratively under Islamic denomination. The Druze are mainly located in the Eastern Oasis Town of Azraq and the city of Zarka, while the Village of Adassiyeh bordering The Jordan Valley is home to Jordan's Bahá'í community. The official language is Arabic, but English is used widely in commerce and government and among educated people. Arabic and English are obligatory learning at public and private schools. French is taught at some public and private schools but is not obligatory. However, a vibrant Francophone community has emerged in modern Jordan.[citation needed] Radio Jordan offers radio services in Arabic, English and French. A portion of the people are registered as Palestinian refugees and displaced persons reside in Jordan, most as citizens. Since 2003 many Iraqis fleeing the Iraq War have settled in Jordan; latest estimates indicate between 700,000 and 1.7 million Iraqis living in Jordan;[9] mainly in Amman, the capital.[10] [edit] Politics King Abdullah II, Jordanian Head of State. Main article: Politics of Jordan [edit] Constitution Jordan is a constitutional monarchy based on the constitution promulgated on January 8, 1952. Executive authority is vested in the king and his council of ministers. The king signs and executes all laws. His veto power may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the National Assembly. He appoints and may dismiss all judges by decree, approves amendments to the constitution, declares war, and commands the armed forces. Cabinet decisions, court judgments, and the national currency are issued in his name. The council of ministers, led by a prime minister, is appointed by the king, who may dismiss other cabinet members at the prime minister's request. The cabinet is responsible to the Chamber of Deputies on matters of general policy and can be forced to resign by a two-thirds vote of "no confidence" by that body. The constitution provides for three categories of courts: civil, religious, and special. Administratively, Jordan is divided into twelve governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the king. They are the sole authorities for all government departments and development projects in their respective areas. The Royal Armed Forces and General Intelligence Department of Jordan are under the control of the king. [edit] Legal system and legislation Jordan's legal system is based on Islamic law and French codes. Judicial review of legislative acts occurs in a special High Tribunal. It has not accepted compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction. Article 97 of Jordan’s constitution guarantees the independence of the judicial branch, clearly stating that judges are 'subject to no authority but that of the law.' While the king must approve the appointment and dismissal of judges, in practice these are supervised by the Higher Judicial Council. The Jordanian legal system draws upon civil traditions as well as Islamic law and custom. Article 99 of the Constitution divides the courts into three categories: civil, religious and special. The civil courts deal with civil and criminal matters in accordance with the law, and they have jurisdiction over all persons in all matters, civil and criminal, including cases brought against the government. The civil courts include Magistrate Courts, Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeal, High Administrative Courts and the Supreme Court. The religious courts include Sharia (Islamic law) courts and the tribunals of other religious communities. Religious courts deal only with matters involving personal law such as marriage, divorce and inheritance. Sharia courts also have jurisdiction over matters regarding Islamic waqfs (a religious endowment such as an area of land). In cases involving parties of different religions regular courts have jurisdiction. Specialized courts involve various bodies. One such body is the Supreme Council which will interpret the Constitution if requested by either the National Assembly or the prime minister, according to Dew et al.: "...such courts are usually created in areas that the legislator deems should be governed by specialized courts with more experience and knowledge in specific matters than other regular courts" [11]. Other examples of special courts include the Court of Income Tax and the Highest Court of Felonies. Prior to 2002 Jordan’s legal system only allowed men to file for divorce, however, during this year the first Jordanian woman successfully filed for divorce [12]; this was made possible from a proposal by a royal human rights commission which had been established by King Abdullah who had vowed to improve the status of women in Jordan. Despite being traditionally dominated by men the number of women involved as lawyers in the Jordan legal system has been increasing. As of mid-2006 Jordan had 1,284 female lawyers, out of a total number of 6,915, and 35 female judges from a total of 630 [13]. [edit] Parliament of Jordan The 1952 Constitution provided for the establishment of the bicameral Jordanian National Assembly - ‘Majlis al-Umma’. The Legislature consists of two houses, the Assembly of Senators ‘Majlis al-Aayan’ and the Chamber of Deputies ‘Majlis al-Nuwaab’. The House of Senators has 55 members all of whom are directly appointed by the King,[14] whilst the Chamber of Deputies/House of Representatives has 80 elected members representing 12 constituencies. Of the 80 members of the lower house, 71 must be Muslim and 9 Christians, with six seats held back specifically for women members [15]. The Constitution ensures that the Senate cannot be more than half the size of the Chamber of Deputies. [edit] Political History of Jordanian Parliament As a developing constitutional monarchy, Jordan has survived the trials and tribulations of Middle Eastern politics. The Jordanian public has experienced limited democracy since gaining independence in 1946, the population has not suffered as others under dictatorships imposed by nationalistic Arab regimes [16]. The 1952 Constitution provided for citizens of Jordan to form and join political parties [17]. Such rights were suspended in 1967 when a state of emergency was declared and martial law and suspension of Parliament, continuing until it was repealed in 1989. In 1988 King Hussein cut political ties with the West Bank following the Israeli occupation. Subsequently, civil unrest followed with Prime Minister al-Rifa’i alleged to have used heavy handed tactics against the population which resulted in riots in April 1989. After the riots had subsided the King fired al-Rifa’i and announced elections for later that year. Organized political activity was resumed in 1989 through the resumption of Parliamentary election, reinforced by new laws for political parties, media and publishing, and fewer restrictions on freedoms of expression. The relaxations have been endorsed and widened more recently by King Abdullah II, so that the country is now one of the most politically open in the Middle East, permitting opposition parties such as the Islamic Action Front (IAF), the political wing of the Jordanian Muslim Brotherhood. The influence of the IAF significantly reduced in 2007 when their parliamentary representation fell from seventeen to six. The King holds the true levers of power, appointing members of the upper House of Notables and has the right to replace the government, a step that King Hussein took in April 2005. It has been argued that the influence of tribalism in determining Parliament election results in Jordan should not be overlooked; it is stronger than political affiliations. Tribal identity has a strong influence over Jordanian life: “…identities remain the primary driving forces of decision making at the level of the individual, the community, and the state” [18]. [edit] Legislative Procedure Both houses initiate debates and vote on legislation. Proposals are referred by the Prime Minister to the House of Deputies where they are either accepted, amended or rejected. Every proposal is referred to a committee of the lower house for consideration. If it is approved then it is referred to the government to draft in the form of a bill and submit it to the Chamber of Deputies. If approved by this House it is passed onto the Senate for debate and a vote. If the Senate gives its approval then the King can either grant consent or refuse. In this case the bill is passed back to the House of Deputies where the review and voting process is repeated. If both houses pass the bill by a two-thirds majority it becomes an Act of Parliament overriding the King’s veto. Article 95 of the Constitution empowers both houses to submit legislation to the government in the form of a draft law [19] The Constitution does not provide a strong system of checks and balances within which the Jordanian Parliament can assert its role in relationship to the Monarch. During the suspension of Parliament between 2001 and 2003, the scope of King Abdullah II’s power was demonstrated with the passing of 110 temporary laws. Two of such laws dealt with election law and were seen to reduce the power of Parliament.[20] [21] [edit] Term Electionbanners4.JPG Campaign posters from 2007 election, courtesy of N. Pratt Senators have terms of four years and are appointed by the King and can be reappointed. Prospective Senators must be at least forty years old and have held senior positions in either the government of military. Appointed senators have included former prime ministers and members of the Chamber of Deputies . Deputies are elected to also serve a four year term. Candidates must be older than thirty five and cannot have blood ties to the king and must not have any financial interests in government contracts [22]. [edit] Current Members of Legislature For a list of the members of the lower house in the Jordaninan Parliament as well as how many votes they gained in the 2007 election follow this link [23]. [edit] Permanent Committees Legal, Financial, Administrative and Foreign Affairs. Both houses have the ability to create committees when required. [edit] Political Parties in the House of Representatives Despite the reforms of 1989, multi-party politics has yet to develop in Jordan. The only political party that plays a role in the legislature is the Islamic Action Front (IAF). Political parties can be seen to represent four sections: Islamists, leftists, Arab nationalists and conservative. There are over 30 other political parties in Jordan including the Jordanian Arab Democratic Party, Jordanian Socialist Party, Muslim Centre Party, but these have little impact on the political process. [edit] Current Weakness of Parliament The Legislature is subject to the power of the Monarch. He is able to suspend, dissolve, shorten or lengthen the term of session. The Senators are appointed by the Monarch and not elected. There is discrimination against urban areas which consists predominantly of Jordanians of Palestinian origin. This point is argued by Ryan who maintains that the parliament has been dominated by conservative tribal leaders through the manipulation of electoral districts, is has been described as a largely gerrymandered parliament. Jordanian electoral districts are unequal in size, with electoral law over-represents rural conservative districts whilst under-representing urban areas which tend to be bastions of Palestinian or Islamist support. The strategy has worked as intended, yielding a parliament made up overwhelmingly of ethnic Transjordanian conservatives, and at times governed by tribal affiliations [24] Although the Constitution makes positive provision for six female members of the lower house there is a gross underrepresentation of women in the lower house and little sign that this is being tackled. The lower house is dominated by conservative rural members as a result of the electoral structure and represents the most conservative elements of society. As an example, articles 97, 98 and 340 of the Jordan penal code offers leniency to those committing honour killings. Potential changes backed by the King and the Senate have successively been rejected by the elected lower house, including in 2003 when twice in a month the recently elected parliament rejected an amended Penal Code backing stricter punishment for those committing honour killings [25]. In a survey amongst Jordanians 94% [26] of respondents believed that ‘honour’ killings were not morally just, yet this was not reflected in the actions of the lower house. Low voter turnout has indicated that there is a problem with public participation in the democratic process, with the following turnouts for previous elections: 2007 54% [27] 2003 58% [28]; 1997 44%; 1993 47%; 1989 41% [29] Practical issues have reduced the effect of Parliament with brief parliamentary sessions (November to March) and a lack of resources and support for members of both houses [30] Boycotting of previous elections by the IAF which represents the only real political party as the vast majority of Representatives ran as independents based on tribal lines or families close to the king. [edit] Democratization of Jordan’s House of Representatives The Jordanian Parliament and its form of democracy is young in comparison to its western contemporaries. According to Kaaklini et al, “Since 1989, it [Jordanian Parliament] has become a more credible, representative, and influential institution. Still, serious constitutional, political, and internal hurdles continue to prevent it from enjoying the prerogatives and from performing the range of functions that are appropriate for a legislature in a democratic system” [31]. Judged against other states in the Middle East, Jordan has made significant progress towards a democratic system of government. Despite the seemingly disproportionate power of rural over urban areas in Jordan’s democratization there is debate as to whether the Jordanian public will act for change, according to Parker, “Jordanians are much too concerned about ensuring there is food on the table to engage in the risks of public protest. The public mood is more one of apathy and resignation than of anger and vengeance.” [32]. It has been argued that the Jordanian Parliament is part of a democracy that has not been achieved by other states within the Middle East. However, in comparison to elected democracies as associated with ‘western’ nations, Jordan may not be considered to have occurred as the monarchy continues to dominate national politics, “…1989 elections brought unparalleled political liberalization and somewhat greater democratic input… although the political supremacy of the palace has been rendered less visible by the more active role of parliament, it is clear that a