World War I, the British invalidated the convention and declared Kuwait an independent principality under the protection of the British Empire.[18] The 1922 Treaty of Uqair set Kuwait's border with Saudi Arabia and also established the Saudi-Kuwaiti neutral zone, an area of about 5,180 km² adjoining Kuwait's southern border. On 19 June 1961, Kuwait became fully independent following an exchange of notes between the United Kingdom and the then Amir of Kuwait, Abdullah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah.[20] The Gulf rupee, issued by the Reserve Bank of India, was replaced by the Kuwaiti dinar. The discovery of large oil fields, especially the Burgan field, triggered a large influx of foreign investments into Kuwait. The massive growth of the petroleum industry transformed Kuwait from a poor pearl farming community into one of the richest countries in the Arabian Peninsula and by 1952, the country became the largest exporter of oil in the Persian Gulf region. This massive growth attracted many foreign workers, especially from Egypt and India. Kuwait settled its boundary disputes with Saudi Arabia and agreed on sharing equally the neutral zone's petroleum reserves, onshore and offshore. After a brief stand-off over boundary issues, Iraq formally recognized Kuwait's independence and its borders in October 1963. During the 1970s, the Kuwaiti government nationalized the Kuwait Oil Company, ending its partnership with Gulf Oil and British Petroleum. In 1982, Kuwait experienced a major economic crisis after the Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash and decrease in oil price.[21] However, the crisis was short-lived as Kuwait's oil production increased steadily to fill the gap caused by decrease in Iraq's and Iran's oil production levels following the events of the Iran–Iraq War. In 1983, a series of six bomb explosions took place in Kuwait killing five people. The attack was carried out by Shiite Dawa Party to retaliate Kuwait's financial support to Iraq during its war with Iran.[22] USAF aircraft (F-16, F-15C and F-15E) fly over Kuwaiti oil fires, set by the retreating Iraqi army during Operation Desert Storm in 1991. Kuwait had heavily funded Iraq's eight year-long war with Iran. After the war ended, Kuwait declined an Iraqi request to forgive its US$65 billion debt.[23] An economic warfare between the two countries followed after Kuwait increased its oil production by 40 percent.[24] Tensions between the two countries increased further after Iraq alleged that Kuwait was slant drilling oil from its share of the Rumaila field.[24] On 2 August 1990, Iraqi forces invaded and annexed Kuwait. Saddam Hussein, then President of Iraq, deposed the Amir of Kuwait, Jaber Al-Sabah, and installed Ali Hassan al-Majid as the new governor of Kuwait.[25] During the Iraqi occupation, about 1,000 Kuwaiti civilians were killed and more than 300,000 residents fled the country.[26] After a series of failed diplomatic negotiations, the United States-led coalition of thirty-four nations fought the Persian Gulf War to remove the Iraqi forces from Kuwait. On 26 February 1991, the coalition succeeded in driving out the Iraqi forces, restoring the Kuwaiti Amir to power.[27] Kuwait paid the coalition forces US$17 billion for their war efforts.[27] During their retreat from the coalition, the Iraqi armed forces carried out a scorched earth policy by damaging 737 oil wells in Kuwait, of which approximately 600 were set on fire.[28] It was estimated that by the time Kuwait was liberated from Iraqi occupation, about 5 to 6 million barrels (950,000 m3) of oil was being burned in a single day because of these fires.[29] Oil and soot accumulation had affected the entire Persian Gulf region and large oil lakes were created holding approximately 25 to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil[30] and covering 5% of Kuwait's land area.[28] In total, about 11 million barrels (1,700,000 m3) of oil was released into the Persian Gulf[31] and an additional 2% of Kuwait's 96 billion barrels (1.53×1010 m3) of crude oil reserves were burned by the time the oil fires were brought under control.[32] The fires took more than nine months to extinguish fully and it took Kuwait more than 2 years and US$50 billion in infrastructure reconstruction to reach pre-invasion oil output.[33] Kuwait has since largely recovered from the socio-economic, environmental, and public health effects of the Persian Gulf War. Politics Main article: Politics of Kuwait See also: Al-Sabah, Elections in Kuwait, and Political Issues in Kuwait The Bayan Palace serves as the seat of the Government of Kuwait. A Kuwait M-84 tank during Operation Desert Shield in 1991. Kuwait continues to maintain strong relations with the coalition of the Gulf War. Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy and has the oldest directly elected parliament among the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. The head of state is the Emir or Sheikh, a hereditary office. A council of ministers, also known as cabinet ministers, aids the Prime Minister in his task as the head of Government of Kuwait which must contain at least one elected member of the Kuwaiti parliament, known as Majlis Al-Umma (National Assembly). The National Assembly has the power to dismiss the Prime Minister or any member of cabinet through a series of constitutional procedures. All cabinet ministers are answerable to the National Assembly.[34] The Head of State (Emir) is the supreme commander of the State, controlling the executive branch though his ministers. The Emir appoints the Prime Minister, approves of all the ministers through the Prime Minister, and appoints and dismisses diplomats. Legislative power is vested in the Emir and the National Assembly in accordance with the Constitution. The Emir of Kuwait is immune and inviolable: any criticism against him is not tolerated and punishable by law.[citation needed] He can dissolve the National Assembly and call a national election, or in cases of national emergency can dismiss the National Assembly outright and assume supreme authority over the country. The Emir is the commander in chief of Kuwait's armed forces. The Emir has authority to grant pardon from the death penalty or prison. The National Assembly consists of fifty elected members, who are chosen in elections held every four years. Government ministers are also granted membership in the parliament and can number up to sixteen excluding the fifty elected members. According to the Constitution of Kuwait, nomination of a new Emir or Crown Prince by the ruling Al-Sabah family has to be approved by the National Assembly. If the nominee does not win the votes of the majority of the assembly, the royal family must submit the names of three other candidates to the National Assembly, and the Assembly must approve one of them to hold the post. Any amendment to the constitution can be proposed by the Emir but it needs to be approved by more than two-thirds of the members of the National Assembly before being implemented.[35] There have been several conflicts between the Emir, the government and the National Assembly over various policies. The National Assembly was suspended from 1976 to 1981, from 1986 to 1991 and from May 1999 to July 1999 due to irresolvable conflicts between some members of the government and the Assembly.[34] The Assembly was dissolved again in May 2009 by the Emir leading to the resignation of Prime Minister Sheik Nasser Mohammad al-Ahmad al-Sabah and the rest of the Cabinet.[36] Nationwide elections were held on May 16, 2009.[37] More than two-thirds of those who reside in Kuwait do not hold Kuwaiti citizenship and thus cannot vote in parliamentary elections. Additionally, prior to 2005, only 15% of the Kuwaiti population were allowed to vote, with all "recently naturalized" citizens (i.e. those of less than thirty years' citizenship), and members of the Kuwaiti Armed Forces excluded. On 16 May 2005, Parliament permitted women's suffrage by a 35-23 vote. The decision raised Kuwait's eligible voter population from 139,000 to about 339,000. In 2006, Kuwaiti citizens were estimated to be more than 960,000. In 2005, the former Prime Minister Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Sabah announced the appointment of the first women as a cabinet minister, Massouma Mubarak. She was designated the post of Planning Minister and Minister of State for Administrative Development Affairs.[38] During the 2008 parliamentary elections, 27 of the 275 candidates were women. However, none of them won.[39] In the parliamentary elections on 16 May 2009, 16 female candidates contested for 50 seats for a four-year term. Four female candidates won their seats and became Kuwait's first female lawmakers.[40] In April 2010 Kuwait's government, unhappy about possible democratic change in Egypt by Mohamed ElBaradei's National Association for Change, deported 17 Egyptians for trying to organize a local chapter of the Association in Kuwait.[41] Heads of Kuwait Supreme Commander:Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah Executive Branch: Nasser Mohammed Al-Ahmed Al-Sabah Legislative Branch : Jassem Al-Kharafi Judicial Branch: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Kuwait Kuwait's foreign policy is based on the principles of clarity, straightforwardness and quiet diplomacy. It aims at strengthening constructive cooperation with other countries on the basis of mutual respect, and non-intervention in the internal affairs in accordance with the principles of fairness and justice. Kuwait's foreign policy is also concerned with the maintenance of its own independence, sovereignty and freedom of political decision. Kuwait is a member of the Arab League, where it realizes its belief in a common Arab destiny by enhancing its relations with the Arab States. Kuwait actively supports and works for the advancement of the Arab League's principles and all its associated organizations. Kuwait is also a member of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf, also known as the Gulf Cooperation Council or GCC. The GCC is a group of oil rich states located in the Persian Gulf, including Qatar, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Oman. Membership of the Council is an expression of Kuwait's primary foreign policy goals of economic and political ties with the other Gulf countries. Citizens of the GCC can travel to other GCC countries with their civil identification (ID). The GCC functions in a similar way to the European Union. Kuwait joined the United Nations on May 14, 1963 thereby becoming the 111th member of the world body. Kuwait has upheld the UN's principle of constructive cooperation, based on peace, equality and justice, among the nations of the world. In June 2010, 18 Kuwaiti citizens attempting to interfere with the defensive sea-blockade of the Hamas-ruled Gaza Strip were temporarily held by the Israeli government after Israeli forces boarded one of the ships. The governments of Kuwait and Israel cooperated for the Kuwaitis' safe return to Kuwait on the following day, with the Emir sending a Royal Aircraft for the Kuwaiti citizens after they crossed the Israeli border into Jordan. Geography and climate Main articles: Geography of Kuwait and Climate of Kuwait Sandstorm over Kuwait in April, 2003 Located in the north-east corner of the Arabian Peninsula, Kuwait is one of the smallest countries in the world in terms of land area. The flat, sandy Arabian Desert covers most of Kuwait. There is little difference in the country's altitude with the highest point in the country being 306 m (1,004 ft) above sea-level.[10] It has nine islands, all of which with the exception of Failaka Island are uninhabited.[42] With an area of 860 km2 (330 sq mi), the Bubiyan is the largest island in Kuwait and is connected to the rest of the country by a 2,380 m (7,808 ft) long bridge.[43] The land area is considered arable[10] and sparse vegetation is found along its 499 km long coastline.[10] Kuwait City is located on Kuwait Bay, a natural deep-water harbor. Kuwait has some of the world's richest oil fields with the Burgan field having a total capacity of approximately 70 billion barrels (1.1×1010 m3) of proven oil reserves. During the 1991 Kuwaiti oil fires, more than 500 oil lakes were created covering a combined surface area of about 35.7 km2 (13.8 sq mi).[44] The resulting soil contamination due to oil and soot accumulation had made eastern and south-eastern parts of Kuwait uninhabitable. Sand and oil residue had reduced large parts of the Kuwaiti desert to semi-asphalt surfaces.[29] The oil spills during the Persian Gulf War also drastically affected Kuwait's marine resources.[45] The spring season in March is warm and pleasant with occasional thunderstorms. The frequent winds from the northwest are cold in winter and spring and hot in summer. Southeasterly winds, usually hot and damp, spring up between July and October; hot and dry south winds prevail in spring and early summer. The shamal, a northwesterly wind common during June and July, causes dramatic sandstorms.[46] Climate data for Kuwait Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 18 (64) 21 (70) 26 (79) 31 (88) 38 (100) 43 (109) 43 (109) 44 (111) 42 (108) 35 (95) 26 (79) 19 (66) 32.2 (89.9) Average low °C (°F) 7 (45) 9 (48) 13 (55) 18 (64) 24 (75) 27 (81) 29 (84) 28 (82) 24 (75) 19 (66) 13 (55) 8 (46) 18.3 (64.9) Precipitation mm (inches) 25.4 (1) 15.2 (0.598) 12.7 (0.5) 15.2 (0.598) 5.1 (0.201) 0.20 (0.0079) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 2.5 (0.098) 12.7 (0.5) 17.8 (0.701) 106.8 (4.205) Source: weather.com[47] Governorates Main article: Governorates of Kuwait Map of Kuwait Kuwait is divided into six governorates (muhafazat, sing. muhafadhah): Al Ahmadi Al Farwaniyah Al Asimah Al Jahra Hawalli Mubarak Al-Kabeer The governorates are subdivided into districts. The major cities are the capital Kuwait City and Jahrah (a thirty-minute drive northwest of Kuwait City). The main residential and commercial areas are Salmiya and Hawalli. The main industrial area is Shuwaikh within the Al Asimah Governorate. The Emir conducts the country's business from the As-Seef Palace in the old part of Kuwait City. The government headquarters are located in the Bayan Palace. Economy Main article: Economy of Kuwait Kuwait City, the main economic hub of the country. An oil refinery in Mina-Al-Ahmadi, Kuwait. The headquarters of Kuwait Petroleum Corporation (KPC) in Kuwait City. Kuwait has a GDP (PPP) of US$167.9 billion[48] and a per capita income of US$81,800,[48] making it the 5th richest country in the world.[11] Kuwait's human development index (HDI) stands at 0.912, the second highest in Middle East after Israel, and the highest in the Arab world. With a GDP growth rate of 5.7%, Kuwait has one of the fastest growing economies in the region.[48] According to the 2008 Index of Economic Freedom, Kuwait has the second-most free economy in the Middle East.[49] In March 2007, Kuwait's foreign exchange reserves stood at US$213 billion.[50] The Kuwait Stock Exchange, which has about 200 firms listed, is the second-largest stock exchange in the Arab world with a total market capitalization of US$235 billion.[51] In 2007, the Kuwaiti government posted a budget surplus of US$43 billion.[52] Kuwait has a proven crude oil reserves of 104 billion barrels (15 km³),[48] estimated to be 10% of the world's reserves. According to the Kuwaiti constitution, all natural resources in the country and associated revenues are government property.[53] Being a tax-free country, Kuwait's oil industry accounts for 80% of government revenue. Petroleum and petrochemicals accounts for nearly half of GDP and 95% of export revenues. Increase in oil prices since 2003 resulted in a surge in Kuwait's economy.[54] Kuwait's current oil production of 2.8 million bpd is expected to increase to 4 million bpd by 2020.[55] To realize this production target, Kuwait Petroleum Corporation plans to spend US$51 billion between 2007 to 2012 to upgrade and expand the country's existing refineries.[56] However, the country's economy was badly affected by the global financial crisis of 2008.[57] In 2009, the Central Bank of Kuwait devised a US$5.15 billion stimulus package to help boost the economy.[58] Other major industries include shipping, construction, cement, water desalination, construction materials and financial services.[48] Kuwait has a well developed banking system and several banks in the country date back to the time before oil was discovered. Founded in 1952, the National Bank of Kuwait is the largest bank in the country and one of the largest in the Arab world.[59] Other prominent financial institutions based in Kuwait include the Gulf Bank of Kuwait and Burgan Bank, which is named after the largest oilfield in the country. Kuwait's climate limits agricultural development. Consequently, with the exception of fish, it depends almost wholly on food imports. About 75% of potable water must be distilled or imported. The government is keen on decreasing Kuwait's dependence on oil to fuel its economy by transforming it into a regional trading and tourism hub. The planned US$77 billion City of Silk is the largest real estate development project in the Middle East.[50] The Central Bank issues Kuwait’s currency, the Kuwaiti dinar. As of December 2007 the dinar was the highest-valued currency unit in the world.[60] In 2007, estimated exports stood at US$59.97 billion and imports were around US$17.74 billion. Petroleum, petrochemical products, fertilizers and financial services are major export commodities. Kuwait imports a wide range of products ranging from food products and textiles to machinery. Kuwait's most important trading partners are Japan, United States, India, South Korea, Singapore, China, European Union and Saudi Arabia.[48] Japan is the largest customer of Kuwaiti oil followed by India, Singapore and South Korea.[61] Education Main article: Education in Kuwait The State of Kuwait is directing its attention towards Inclusive Education, which provides opportunity to all children, irrespective of their social class, including children with special needs.It is ranked 29th on Human Development Index( HDI) by UNESCO, highest among other Arab countries. Kuwait education system is marked by several achievements in recent years. As of 2005/06 Kuwait allocates 13 percent of all public expenditure to education, which is comparable to the allocation of public funds to education in many OECD countries but lower than other Arab countries. For the same years the public expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP was 3.9 percent in 2005/06 which is well below the percentage of GDP spent by OECD countries on education. As of 2005 the literacy rate of Kuwait is 93.3 percent. Kuwait is facing challenges in improving the quality of education at all levels and to build capacities of students’ from a young age. The Ministry of Education is also making efforts to incorporate women into the educated workforce through various programs, for instance the 1989 initiative to establish daytime literacy clinics for women. The Kuwaiti government also offers scholarships to students accepted in universities in United States, United Kingdom and other foreign institutes. There is also higher education, which has improved drastically in the past years. The largest university is Kuwait University which is free for Kuwaitis and has over 1,500 faculty members and 22,000 students. There are also a number of private institutions such as American University of Kuwait, Gulf University of Science and Technology, the Australian University of Kuwait. The American University of The Middle East, Box Hill College Kuwait and Maastricht Business School Kuwait. Kuwait has the highest literacy rate among the Arab world with 94%, up from 93.3% in 20