le Malay Archipelago.[22] Politicians in the Philippines contemplated renaming their state "Malaysia" before the modern country took the name.[23] At the time of federation, other names were considered: among them was Langkasuka, after the historic kingdom located at the upper section of the Malay Peninsula in the 1st millennium CE.[24] History Main article: History of Malaysia Evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia dates back 40,000 years.[25] The first inhabitants are thought to be Negritos.[26] Traders and settlers from India and China arrived as early as the 1st century AD, establishing trading ports and coastal towns in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Their presence resulted in strong Indian and Chinese influence on the local cultures, and the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Sanskrit inscriptions appear as early as the 4th or 5th century.[27] The Kingdom of Langkasuka arose around the 2nd century in the northern area of the Malay Peninsula, lasting until about the 15th century.[24] Between the 7th and 13th centuries, much of the southern Malay Peninsula was part of the maritime Srivijaya empire. After the fall of Srivijaya, the Majapahit empire had influence over most of Peninsular Malaysia and the Malay Archipelago.[28] Islam began to spread among Malays in the 14th century.[3] In the early 15th century, Parameswara, a prince of the former Srivijayan empire, founded the Malacca Sultanate, commonly considered the first independent state in the peninsula.[29] Malacca was an important commercial centre during this time, attracting trade from around the region. Parameswara became a Muslim, accelerating the spread of Islam.[3] A Famosa fortress in Malacca was built by the Portuguese in the 16th century. In 1511 Malacca was conquered by Portugal,[3] after which it was taken by the Dutch in 1641. In 1786 the British Empire established a presence in Malaya, when the Sultan of Kedah leased Penang to the British East India Company. The British obtained the town of Singapore in 1819,[30] and in 1824 took control of Malacca following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty. By 1826 the British directly controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the island of Labuan, which they established as the crown colony of the Straits Settlements. By the 20th century, the states of Pahang, Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan, known together as the Federated Malay States, had British Residents appointed to advise the Malay rulers, to whom the rulers were bound to defer by treaty.[31] The remaining five states in the peninsula, known as the Unfederated Malay States, while not directly under British rule, also accepted British advisers around the turn of the 20th century. Development on the Peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century. Under British rule the immigration of Chinese and Indians to serve as labourers was encouraged.[32] Sabah was governed as the crown colony of British North Borneo after it was leased from the Sultanate of Sulu in 1878.[33] In 1842, Sarawak was ceded by the Sultan of Brunei to James Brooke, whose successors ruled as the White Rajahs over an independent kingdom until 1946, when it became a British colony.[34] In the Second World War the Japanese army invaded and subsequently occupied Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak, and Singapore for over three years. During this time, ethnic tensions were raised and nationalism grew.[35] Popular support for independence increased after Malaya was reconquered by Allied Forces.[36] Post-war British plans to unite the administration of Malaya under a single crown colony called the Malayan Union met with strong opposition from the Malays, who opposed the weakening of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to the ethnic Chinese. The Malayan Union, established in 1946 and consisting of all the British possessions in the Malay Peninsula with the exception of Singapore, was quickly dissolved and replaced by the Federation of Malaya, which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under British protection.[37] During this time, mostly Chinese rebels under the leadership of the Malayan Communist Party launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya. The Malayan Emergency lasted from 1948 to 1960, and involved a long anti-insurgency campaign by Commonwealth troops in Malaya.[38] After this a plan was put in place to federate Malaya with the British crown colonies of Sabah, Sarawak, and Singapore. The proposed date of federation was 31 August 1963, however, the date was delayed until 16 September 1963 due to opposition from Indonesia's Sukarno and the Sarawak United Peoples' Party.[39] Merdeka Square in Kuala Lumpur, where Independence Day is celebrated on 31 August each year. Federation brought heightened tensions including a conflict with Indonesia, Singapore's eventual exit in 1965,[40][41] and racial strife. This strife culminated in the 13 May race riots in 1969.[42] After the riots, the controversial New Economic Policy was launched by Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak, trying to increase the share of the economy held by the bumiputra.[43] Under Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad there was a period of rapid economic growth and urbanisation beginning in the 1980s. The economy shifted from being agriculturally-based to one based on manufacturing and industry. Numerous mega-projects were completed, such as the Petronas Towers, the North-South Expressway, the Multimedia Super Corridor, and the new federal administrative capital of Putrajaya.[21] However, in the late 1990s the Asian financial crisis almost caused the collapse of the currency and the stock and property markets.[44] Governance Main article: Politics of Malaysia The Malaysian Houses of Parliament is the building where the Malaysian Parliament assembles. Malaysia is a federal constitutional elective monarchy. The system of government is closely modelled on that of the Westminster parliamentary system, a legacy of British colonial rule.[45] The head of state is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, commonly referred to as the king. The King is elected to a five-year term by and from among the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states; the other four states, which have titular Governors, do not participate in the selection. By informal agreement the position is systematically rotated among the nine,[45] and has been held by Abdul Halim of Kedah since December 2011.[46] The King's role has been mostly ceremonial since changes to the constitution in 1994.[47] Legislative power is divided between federal and state legislatures. The bicameral federal parliament consists of the lower house, the House of Representatives and the upper house, the Senate.[48] The 222-member House of Representatives is elected for a maximum term of five years from single-member constituencies. All 70 senators sit for three-year terms; 26 are elected by the 13 state assemblies, and the remaining 44 are appointed by the King upon the Prime Minister's recommendation.[3] The parliament follows a multi-party system and the government is elected through a first-past-the-post system. Since independence Malaysia has been governed by a multi-party coalition known as the Barisan Nasional.[3] Each state has a unicameral State Legislative Assembly whose members are elected from single-member constituencies. State governments are led by Chief Ministers,[3] who are state assembly members from the majority party in the assembly. In each of the states with a hereditary ruler, the Chief Minister is required to be a Malay, appointed by the ruler upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister.[49] Parliamentary elections are held at least once every five years, the most recent of which took place in March 2008.[3] Registered voters of age 21 and above may vote for the members of the House of Representatives and, in most of the states, for the state legislative chamber. Voting is not mandatory.[50] Except for elections in Sarawak, all state elections are held concurrently with the federal election.[47] Najib Razak, Prime Minister since 2009. Executive power is vested in the Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister. The prime minister must be a member of the house of representatives, who in the opinion of the King, commands a majority in parliament. The cabinet is chosen from members of both houses of Parliament.[3] The Prime Minister is both the head of cabinet and the head of government.[47] The incumbent, Najib Razak, appointed in 2009, is the sixth prime minister.[51] Malaysia's legal system is based on English Common Law.[3] Although the judiciary is theoretically independent, its independence has been called into question and the appointment of judges lacks accountability and transparency.[52] The highest court in the judicial system is the Federal Court, followed by the Court of Appeal and two high courts, one for Peninsular Malaysia and one for East Malaysia. Malaysia also has a special court to hear cases brought by or against Royalty.[53] Separate from the civil courts are the Syariah Courts, which apply Shariah law to cases which involve Malaysian Muslims[54] and run parallel to the secular court system.[55] The Internal Security Act allows detention without trial, and the death penalty is in use for crimes such as drug trafficking.[56] Race is a significant force in politics, and many political parties are ethnically based.[3] Actions such as the New Economic Policy[43] and the National Development Policy which superseded it, were implemented to advance the standing of the bumiputra, consisting of Malays and the indigenous tribes who are considered the original inhabitants of Malaysia, over non-bumiputra such as Malaysian Chinese and Malaysian Indians.[57] These policies provide preferential treatment to bumiputra in employment, education, scholarships, business, and access to cheaper housing and assisted savings. However, it has generated greater interethnic resentment.[58] There is ongoing debate over whether the laws and society of Malaysia should reflect secular or Islamic principles.[59] Islamic laws passed by the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party in state legislative assemblies have been blocked by the federal government.[60] Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of Malaysia and Malaysian Armed Forces The RMAF MiG-29N/UB & Aermacchi MB-339 A founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)[61] and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC),[62] the country participates in many international organisations such as the United Nations,[63] the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation,[64] the Developing 8 Countries,[65] and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).[66] It has chaired ASEAN, the OIC, and the NAM in the past.[3] A former British colony, it is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.[67] Kuala Lumpur was the site of the first East Asia Summit in 2005.[68] Malaysia's foreign policy is officially based on the principle of neutrality and maintaining peaceful relations with all countries, regardless of their political system.[69] The government attaches a high priority to the security and stability of Southeast Asia,[68] and seeks to further develop relations with other countries in the region. Historically the government has tried to portray Malaysia as a progressive Islamic nation[69] while strengthening relations with other Islamic states.[68] A strong tenet of Malaysia's policy is national sovereignty and the right of a country to control its domestic affairs.[47] The policy towards territorial disputes by the government is one of pragmatism, with the government solving disputes in a number of ways, such as bringing the case to the International Court of Justice.[70] The Spratly Islands are disputed by many states in the area, although tensions have eased since the 2002 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea. Brunei and Malaysia in 2008 announced an end to claims of each other's land, and to resolve issues related to their maritime borders. The Philippines has a dormant claim to Sabah. Singapore's land reclamation has caused tensions, and maritime border disputes exist with Indonesia.[71] Royal Malaysian Navy's first Scorpène class submarine Malaysia has never recognised Israel and has no diplomatic ties with it.[72] It has remained a strong supporter of the State of Palestine,[73] and has called for Israel to be taken to the International Criminal Court over the Gaza flotilla raid.[74] Malaysian peacekeeping forces are present in Lebanon[75] and have contributed to many other UN peacekeeping missions.[3] Malaysian defence requirements are assigned to the Malaysian Armed Forces. The armed forces has three branches, the Royal Malaysian Navy, the Malaysian Army, and the Royal Malaysian Air Force. There is no conscription, and the required age for voluntary military service is 18. The military uses 1.9 per cent of the country's GDP, and employs 1.23 per cent of Malaysia's manpower.[76] The Five Power Defence Arrangements is a regional security initiative which has been in place for almost 40 years. It involves joint military exercises held among Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.[77] Joint exercises and war games have been held with Indonesia for years.[78] Malaysia and the Philippines have agreed to host joint security force exercises in order to secure their maritime border and tackle issues such as illegal immigration.[79] There are fears that unrest in the Muslim areas of the southern Philippines[80] and southern Thailand[81] could spill over into Malaysia. Subdivisions Main articles: States and federal territories of Malaysia and Districts of Malaysia Perlis Kedah Penang Kelantan Terengganu Perak Selangor Negeri Sembilan Malacca Johor Pahang Sarawak Sabah Labuan Kuala Lumpur Putrajaya South China Sea Strait of Malacca Gulf of Thailand Sulu Sea Celebes Sea Malaysia is a federation of 13 states and three federal territories. These are divided between two regions, with 11 states and two federal territories on Peninsular Malaysia and the other two states and one federal territory in East Malaysia. Governance of the states is divided between the federal and the state governments, and the Federal government has direct administration of the federal territories.[82] The 13 states are based on historical Malay Kingdoms, and 9 of the 11 Peninsular states, known as the Malay states, retain their royal families. The King is elected by and from the nine rulers to serve a five-year term.[3] Each state has a unicameral legislature known as the State Legislative Assembly. The states of East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak) have separate immigration policies and controls, and a unique residency status.[83] For citizens of one of these states or Peninsular Malaysia, the other areas of Malaysia are considered foreign countries under immigration laws.[84] Each state is further divided into districts, which are then divided into mukim. In Sabah and Sarawak districts are grouped into divisions.[85] The federal parliament is permitted to legislate on issues of land, the Islamic religion and local government, in order to provide for a uniform law among all states. It may also intervene at the request of the state assembly concerned. Except for some land related laws, the in question must also be passed by the state assembly. Non-Islamic issues that fall under the purview of the state may also be legislated at the federal level for the purpose of conforming with Malaysian treaty obligations.[86] Geography Main article: Geography of Malaysia A view from Low's peak, the highest peak of Mount Kinabalu. Malaysia is the 66th largest country by total land area, with a land area of 329,847 square kilometres (127,355 sq mi). It has land borders with Thailand in West Malaysia, and Indonesia and Brunei in East Malaysia.[2] It is linked to Singapore by a narrow causeway, and also has maritime boundaries with Vietnam[87] and the Philippines.[88] The land borders are defined in large part by geological features such as the Perlis River, Golok River and the Pagalayan Canal, whilst some of the maritime boundaries are the subject of ongoing contention.[2] Brunei forms what is almost an enclave in Malaysia,[89] with the state of Sarawak dividing it into two parts. Malaysia is the only country with territory on both the Asian mainland and the Malay archipelago.[90] Tanjung Piai, located in the southern state of Johor, is the southernmost tip of continental Asia.[91] The Strait of Malacca, lying between Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, is one of the most important thoroughfares in global commerce, carrying 40 per cent of the world's trade.[92] The two parts of Malaysia, separated from each other by the South China Sea, share a largely similar landscape in that both Peninsular and East Malaysia feature coastal plains rising to hills and mountains.[2] Peninsular Malaysia, containing 40 per cent of Malaysia's land area,[90] extends 740 kilometres (460 mi) from north to south, and its maximum width is 322 kilometres (200 mi).[93] It is divided between its east and west coasts by the Titiwangsa Mountains,[94] part of a series of mountain ranges running down the centre of the peninsula.[90] These mountains are heavily forested,[95] and mainly composed of granite and other igneous rocks. Much of it has been eroded, creating a karst landscape.[90] The range is the origin of some of Peninsular Malaysia's river systems.[95] The coastal plains surrounding the peninsula reach a maximum width of 50 kilometres (31 mi), and the peninsula's coastline is nearly 1,931 kilometres (1,200 mi) long, although harbours are only available on the western side.[93] Taman Negara National Park East Malaysia, on the island of Borneo, has a coastline of 2,607 kilometres (1,620 mi).[2] It is divided between coastal regions, hills and valleys, and a mountainous interior.[90] The Crocker Range extends northwards from Sarawak,[90] dividing the state of Sabah. It is the location of the 4,095.2 metres (13,436 ft) high Mount Kinabalu,[96] the tallest mountain in Malaysia. Mount Kinabalu is protected as the Kinabalu National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[97] The highest mountain ranges form the border between Malaysia and Indonesia. Sarawak contains the Mulu Caves, the largest cave system in the world.[90] Around these two halves of Malaysia are numerous islands, the largest of which is Banggi.[98] The local climate is equatorial and characterised by the annual southwest (April to October) and northeast (October to February) monsoons.[93] The temperature is moderated by the presence of the surrounding oceans.[90] Humidity is usually high, and the average annual rainfall is 250 centimetres (98 in).[93] The climates of the Peninsula and the East differ, as the climate on the peninsula is directly affected by wind from the mainland, as opposed to the more maritime weather of the East. Local climates can be divided into three regions, highland, lowland, and coastal. Climate change is likely to affect sea levels and rainfall, increasing flood risks and leading to droughts.[90] Biodiversity Main article: Wildlife of Malaysia Proboscis monkey in Borneo Malaysia is a megadiverse country with a high number of species and high levels of endemism.[99] It is estimated to contain 20 per cent of the world's animal species.[100] High levels of endemism are found on the diverse forests of Borneo's mountains, as species are isolated from each other by lowland forest.[90] There are about 210 mammal species in the country.[101] Over 620 species of birds have been recorded in Peninsular Malaysia,[100] with many endemic to the mountains there. A high number of endemic bird species are also found in Mala