ly subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire.[9] The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of a Moroccan invasion in 1591, under the command of Judar Pasha.[9] The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads.[9] Following the establishment of sea routes by the European powers, the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance.[9] The pages above are from Timbuktu Manuscripts written in Sudani script (a form of Arabic) from the Mali Empire showing established knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. Today there are close to a million of these manuscripts found in Timbuktu alone. One of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe, "The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to the Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–56, when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu."[10] Mali fell under the control of the French during the late 19th century.[9] By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as a part of French Sudan.[9] In early 1959, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation. The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960.[9] Senegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960. Modibo Keïta was elected the first president.[9] Keïta quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources.[9] On 19 November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in a bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré,[11] a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day. The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. However, his efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating drought between 1968 to 1974,[11] in which famine killed thousands of people.[12] The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. However, the Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until the late 1980s.[11] The government continued to attempt economic reforms, and the populace became increasingly dissatisfied.[11] In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization, but refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system.[11] In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs to Mali.[11] A statue of freedom in Bamako. Anti-government protests in 1991 led to a coup, a transitional government, and a new constitution.[11] Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Mousa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time, strict programs imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund brought increased hardship upon the country's population while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants. Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent. From March 22 through March 26, 1991, mass pro-democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities, which became known as les evenements ("the events") or the March Revolution. In Bamako, in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others, soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the nonviolent demonstrators. Riots broke out briefly following the shootings. Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traoré declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew. Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over the course of four days, nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies.[13] March 26th, 1991 is the day that marks the clash between military soldiers and peaceful demonstrating students which climaxed in the massacre of dozens under the orders of then President Moussa Traoré. He and three associates were later tried and convicted and received the death sentence for their part in the decision-making of that day. Nowadays, the day is a national holiday in order to remember the tragic events and the people that were killed.[14] The coup is remembered as Mali's March Revolution of 1991. By March 26, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full scale tumult, and resulted into thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining the pro-democracy movement. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré. As a consequence, opposition parties were legalized and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum.[13] In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election. Upon his reelection in 1997, President Konaré pushed through political and economic reforms and fought corruption. In 2002, he was succeeded in democratic elections by Amadou Toumani Touré, a retired general, who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising.[15] Although recently Mali has been listed as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa,[16] the country has been facing a major internal conflict since January 2012 led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad against the Malian government.[17] On 22 March 2012, it was reported that rebel troops from the military appeared on state TV announcing they had seized control of the country.[18] Unrest over the president's handling of the conflict with the rebels was a motivating force. However, due to the 2012 Tuareg Rebellion, the military government controls only the southern third of the country leaving the north of the country known as Azawad to MNLA rebels. The rebels control Timbuktu, 700 km from the capital.[19] In response, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) froze assets and imposed an embargo, leaving some with only days of fuel. Mali is dependent on fuel imports trucked overland from Senegal and Ivory Coast.[20] Geography Satellite image of Mali Landscape in Hombori Main article: Geography of Mali Mali is a landlocked nation in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria. It lies between latitudes 10° and 25°N, and longitudes 13°W and 5°E. At 1,242,248 square kilometres (480,000 sq mi), including the disputed region of Azawad, Mali is the world's 24th-largest country and is comparable in size to South Africa or Angola. Most of the country lies in the southern Sahara, which produces a hot, dust-laden Sudanian savanna zone.[21] Mali is mostly flat, rising to rolling northern plains covered by sand. The Adrar des Ifoghas lies in the northeast. The country's climate ranges from tropical in the south to arid in the north.[21] Most of the country receives negligible rainfall; droughts are frequent.[21] Late June to early December is the rainy season. During this time, flooding of the Niger River is common, creating the Inner Niger Delta.[21] The nation has considerable natural resources, with gold, uranium, phosphates, kaolinite, salt and limestone being most widely exploited. Mali faces numerous environmental challenges, including desertification, deforestation, soil erosion, and inadequate supplies of potable water.[21] Regions and cercles Main articles: Regions of Mali, Cercles of Mali, and Communes of Mali Mali is divided into eight regions (régions) and one district.[22] Each region has a governor.[23] Since Mali's regions are very large, the country is subdivided into 49 cercles and 703 communes.[24] The régions and Capital District are: Region name Area (km2) Population Census 1998 Population Census 2009 Kayes 119,743 1,374,316 1,996,812 Koulikoro 95,848 1,570,507 2,418,305 Bamako Capital District 252 1,016,296 1,809,106 Sikasso 70,280 1,782,157 2,625,919 Ségou 64,821 1,675,357 2,336,255 Mopti 79,017 1,484,601 2,037,330 Tombouctou (Timbuktu) 496,611 442,619 681,691 Gao 170,572 341,542 544,120 Kidal 151,430 38,774 67,638 Since March 2012, the Malian government has not exercised control over Tombouctou, Gao and Kidal Regions and the north-eastern portion of Mopti Region. On 6 April 2012, the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad unilaterally declared their secession from Mali as Azawad, an act that neither Mali nor the international community have recognised.[25] Politics and government Main article: Politics of Mali Malian President Amadou Toumani Touré Mali is a constitutional democracy governed by the Constitution of 12 January 1992, which was amended in 1999.[26] The constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government.[26] The system of government can be described as "semi-presidential".[26] Executive power is vested in a president, who is elected to a five-year term by universal suffrage and is limited to two terms.[26][27] The president serves as a chief of state and commander in chief of the armed forces.[26][28] A prime minister appointed by the president serves as head of government and in turn appoints the Council of Ministers.[26][29] The unicameral National Assembly is Mali's sole legislative body, consisting of deputies elected to five-year terms.[30][31] Following the 2007 elections, the Alliance for Democracy and Progress held 113 of 160 seats in the assembly.[32] The assembly holds two regular sessions each year, during which it debates and votes on legislation that has been submitted by a member or by the government.[30][33] Democracy-wise, things looked positive after the local elections at the end of April 2009, though significant shortcomings and attempts at manipulation still existed. Government buildings Mali's constitution provides for an independent judiciary,[30][34] but the executive continues to exercise influence over the judiciary by virtue of power to appoint judges and oversee both judicial functions and law enforcement.[30] Mali's highest courts are the Supreme Court, which has both judicial and administrative powers, and a separate Constitutional Court that provides judicial review of legislative acts and serves as an election arbiter.[30][35] Various lower courts exist, though village chiefs and elders resolve most local disputes in rural areas.[30] Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of Mali and Military of Mali Malian President Amadou Toumani Touré with U.S. President George W. Bush Mali's foreign policy orientation has become increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time.[36] Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 2002, Mali's relations with the West in general and with the United States in particular have improved significantly.[36] Mali has a longstanding yet ambivalent relationship with France, a former colonial ruler.[36] Mali was active in regional organizations such as the African Union until its suspension over the 2012 Malian coup d'état.[37][36] Working to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major foreign policy goals.[36] Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy.[36] General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional relations.[36] Mali's military forces consist of an army, which includes land forces and air force,[38] as well as the paramilitary Gendarmerie and Republican Guard, all of which are under the control of Mali's Ministry of Defense and Veterans, headed by a civilian.[39] The military is underpaid, poorly equipped, and in need of rationalization.[39] Organization has suffered from the incorporation of Tuareg irregular forces into the regular military following a 1992 agreement between the government and Tuareg rebel forces.[39] The military has generally kept a low profile since the democratic transition of 1992. The incumbent president, Amadou Toumani Touré, is a former army general and as such reportedly enjoys widespread military support.[39] In the annual human rights report for 2003, the U.S. Department of State rated civilian control of security forces as generally effective but noted a few "instances in which elements of the security forces acted independently of government authority".[39] Western powers such as the United States have also helped Mali's military with training and equipment.[40][41] Economy Main article: Economy of Mali Market scene in Kati Mali is one of the poorest countries in the world.[38] The average worker's annual salary is approximately US$1,500.[42] Between 1992 and 1995, Mali implemented an economic adjustment program that resulted in economic growth and a reduction in financial imbalances. The program increased social and economic conditions, and led to Mali joining the World Trade Organization on 31 May 1995.[43] The gross domestic product (GDP) has risen since. In 2002, the GDP amounted to US$3.4 billion,[44] and increased to US$5.8 billion in 2005,[42] which amounts to an approximately 17.6% annual growth rate. Mali's key industry is agriculture. Cotton is the country's largest crop export and is exported west throughout Senegal and the Ivory Coast.[45][46] During 2002, 620,000 tons of cotton were produced in Mali but cotton prices declined significantly in 2003.[45][46] In addition to cotton, Mali produces rice, millet, corn, vegetables, tobacco, and tree crops. Gold, livestock and agriculture amount to eighty percent of Mali's exports.[42] Eighty percent of Malian workers are employed in agriculture while fifteen percent work in the service sector.[46] However, seasonal variations lead to regular temporary unemployment of agricultural workers.[47] Mali's resource in livestock consists of millions of cattle, sheep, and goats. Approximately 40% of Mali's herds were lost during the Sahel drought in 1972–74.[48] Cotton processing at CMDT. In 1991, with the assistance of the International Development Association, Mali relaxed the enforcement of mining codes which led to renewed foreign interest and investment in the mining industry.[49] Gold is mined in the southern region and Mali has the third highest gold production in Africa (after South Africa and Ghana).[45] The emergence of gold as Mali's leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impact of the cotton and Côte d'Ivoire crises.[50] Other natural resources include kaolin, salt, phosphate, and limestone.[42] Electricity and water are maintained by the Energie du Mali, or EDM, and textiles are generated by Industry Textile du Mali, or ITEMA.[42] Mali has made efficient use of hydroelectricity, consisting of over half of Mali's electrical power. In 2002, 700 GWh of hydroelectric power were produced in Mali.[46] The Malian government participates in foreign involvement, concerning commerce and privatization. Mali underwent economic reform, beginning in 1988 by signing agreements with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.[42] During 1988 to 1996, Mali's government largely reformed public enterprises. Since the agreement, sixteen enterprises were privatized, twelve partially privatized, and twenty liquidated.[42] In 2005, the Malian government conceded a railroad company to the Savage Corporation.[42] Two major companies, Societé de Telecommunications du Mali (SOTELMA) and the Cotton Ginning Company (CMDT), are expected to be privatized in 2008.[42] Mali is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).[51] Demographics A Bozo girl in Bamako Main article: Demographics of Mali See also: List of cities in Mali In July 2009, Mali's population was an estimated 14.5 million. The population is predominantly rural (68% in 2002), and 5–10% of Malians are nomadic.[52] More than 90% of the population lives in the southern part of the country, especially in Bamako, which has over 1 million residents.[52] In 2007, about 48% of Malians were less than fifteen years old, 49% were 15–64 years old, and 3% were 65 and older.[38] The median age was 15.9 years.[38] The birth rate in 2012 was 45.2 births per 1,000, and the total fertility rate was 6.4 children per woman.[38] The death rate in 2007 was 16.5 deaths per 1,000.[38] Life expectancy at birth was 49.5 years total (47.6 for males and 51.5 for females).[38] Mali has one of the world's highest rates of infant mortality,[52] with 106 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2007.[38] Mali's population encompasses a number of sub-Saharan ethnic groups, most of which have historical, cultural, linguistic, and religious commonalities.[52] The Bambara (Bambara: Bamanankaw) are by far the largest single ethnic group, making up 36.5% of the population.[52] Collectively, the Bambara, Soninké, Khassonké, and Malinké, all part of the broader Mandé group, constitute 50% of Mali's population.[38] Other significant groups are the Fula (French: Peul; Fula: Ful?e) (17%), Voltaic (12%), Songhai (6%), and Tuareg and Moor (10%).[38] Mali historically has enjoyed reasonably good inter-ethnic relations; however, some hereditary servitude relationships exist,[53][54] as do ethnic tensions between the Songhai and the Tuareg.[52] Over the past 40 years, persistent drought has forced many Tuareg to give up their nomadic way of life.[55] Mali's official language is French, but numerous (40 or more) African languages also are widely used by the various ethnic groups.[52] About 80% of Mali's population can communicate in Bambara, which is the country's principal lingua franca and marketplace language.[52] Religion Main article: Religion in Mali Religion in Mali[56] religion percent Islam  ? 90% Christianity  ? 5% Indigenous  ? 5% Islam came to west Africa in the 11th century and remains the predominant religion in most countries in that region. An estimated 90% of Malians are Muslim (mostly Sunni and Sufi), approximately 5% are Christian (about two-thirds Roman Catholic and one-third Protestant) and the remaining 5% adhere to indigenous or traditional animist beliefs.[56] Atheism and agnosticism are believed to be rare among Malians, most of whom practice their religion on a daily basis.[57] Islam as practiced in Mali is moderate, tolerant, and adapted to local conditions; relations between Muslims and practitioners of minority religious faiths are generally amicable.[57] The constitution establishes a secular state and provides for freedom of religion, and the government largely respects this right.[57] Health and education Main articles: Health in Mali and Education in Mali Mali faces numerous health challenges related to poverty, malnutrition, and inadequate hygiene and sanitation.[57] Mali's health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world.[57] Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 53.06 years in 2012.[58] In 200