into a great economic and military power in East Asia. In 1914, Japan joined the Entente powers during World War I, and found it possible to capture German colonies in China and Micronesia. On September 29, 1914, Japanese troops occupied the atoll of Enewetak, and on September 30, 1914 the atoll of Jaluit the administrative center of the Marshall Islands.[10] After the war, on June 28, 1919, Germany renounced all of its Pacific possessions, including the Marshall Islands. On December 17, 1920, the Council of the League of Nations approved the mandate for Japan to take over all former German colonies in the Pacific Ocean located north of the equator.[10] The Administrative Center of the Marshall Islands atoll remained Jaluit. The Japanese were unlike the German Empire, which had primarily economic interests in Micronesia. Despite its small area and few resources, the absorption of the territory by Japan would to some extent alleviate Japan's problem of an increasing population but an ever decreasing amount of available land to house it.[11] During its years of colonial rule, Japan moved more than 1,000 Japanese to the Marshall Islands although they never outnumbered the indigenous peoples as they did in the Mariana Islands and Palau. The Japanese enlarged administration and appointed local leaders, which weakened the authority of local traditional leaders. Japan also tried to change the social organization in the islands from Matrilineality to the Japanese Patriarchal system, but with no success.[11] Moreover, during the 1930s, one third of all land up to the high water level was declared the property of the Japanese government. On the archipelago, before it banned foreign traders, the activities of Catholic and Protestant missionaries were allowed.[11] Indigenous people were educated in Japanese schools, and studied Japanese language and Japanese culture. This policy was the government strategy not only in the Marshall Islands, but on all the other mandated territories in Micronesia. On March 27, 1933, Japan left the League of Nations, but nevertheless continued to manage the islands in the region and in the late 1930s, and started constructing air bases on several atolls. The Marshall Islands were in an important geographical position, being the easternmost point in Japan's defensive ring at the beginning of World War II.[11][12] World War II US troops inspecting an enemy bunker, Kwajalein Atoll. 1944. In the months before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Kwajalein Atoll was the administrative center of the Japanese 6th Fleet Forces Service, whose task was the defense of the Marshall Islands.[13] In World War II, the United States, during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, invaded and occupied the islands in 1944, destroying or isolating the Japanese garrisons. The US government added the archipelago to the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, along with several other island groups in the South Sea. The battle in the Marshall Islands caused irreparable damage, especially on Japanese bases. During the American bombing, the islands' population suffered from lack of food and various injuries. U.S. attacks started in mid-1943, and caused half the Japanese garrison of 5,100 people in the atoll Mili to die from hunger by August 1945.[14] In just one month in 1944, Americans captured Kwajalein Atoll, Majuro and Enewetak, and in the next two months the rest of the Marshall Islands except Wotje, Mili, Maloelap and Jaluit. Shipping Lane Patrol Kwajalein Island (Marshall Islands-April 1945) Nuclear tests after World War II See also: Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands Mushroom cloud from the largest nuclear test the United States ever conducted, Castle Bravo. From 1946 to 1958, as the site of the Pacific Proving Grounds, the U.S. tested 67 nuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands,[15] including the largest nuclear test the U.S. ever conducted, Castle Bravo.[16] In 1956, the Atomic Energy Commission regarded the Marshall Islands as "by far the most contaminated place in the world".[17] Nuclear claims between the U.S. and the Marshall Islands are ongoing, and health effects from these nuclear tests linger.[16] Project 4.1 was a medical study conducted by the United States of those residents of the Bikini Atoll exposed to radioactive fallout. From 1956 to August 1998, at least $759 million was paid to the Marshallese Islanders in compensation for their exposure to U.S. nuclear testing.[18] With the 1952 test of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb, code named "Ivy Mike", the island of Elugelab in the Enewetak atoll was destroyed. Independence In 1979, the Government of the Marshall Islands was officially established and the country became self-governing. In 1986, the Compact of Free Association with the United States entered into force, granting the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) its sovereignty. The Compact provided for aid and U.S. defense of the islands in exchange for continued U.S. military use of the missile testing range at Kwajalein Atoll. The independence procedure was formally completed under international law in 1990, when the UN officially ended the Trusteeship status. Government Main article: Politics of the Marshall Islands The Marshall Islands Capitol building The government of the Marshall Islands operates under a mixed parliamentary-presidential system as set forth in its Constitution.[19] Elections are held every four years in universal suffrage (for all citizens above 18), with each of the twenty-four constituencies (see below) electing one or more representatives (senators) to the lower house of RMI’s bicameral legislature, the Nitijela. (Majuro, the capital atoll, elects five senators.) The President, who is head of state as well as head of government, is elected by the 33 senators of the Nitijela. Four of the five Marshallese presidents who have been elected since the Constitution was adopted in 1979 have been traditional paramount chiefs.[20] Legislative power lies with the Nitijela. The upper house of Parliament, called the Council of Iroij, is an advisory body comprising twelve tribal chiefs. The executive branch consists of the President and the Presidential Cabinet, which consists of ten ministers appointed by the President with the approval of the Nitijela. The twenty-four electoral districts into which the country is divided correspond to the inhabited islands and atolls. There are currently three political parties in the Marshall Islands: Aelon Kein Ad (AKA), United People's Party (UPP), and United Democratic Party (UDP). Rule is shared by the UDP and the UPP. The following senators are in the legislative body: Ailinglaplap Atoll – Christopher J. Loeak (AKA), Ruben R. Zackhras (UDP) Ailuk Atoll – Maynard Alfred (UDP) Arno Atoll – Nidel Lorak (UPP), Gerald M. Zackios (UDP) Aur Atoll – Norman Matthew (UPP) Ebon Atoll – John M. Silk (UDP) Enewetak Atoll – Jack Ading (UPP) Jabat Island – Kessai H. Note (UDP) Jaluit Atoll – Rien R. Morris (UDP), Speaker Alvin T. Jacklick (UDP) Kili Island – Tomaki Juda (UDP) Kwajalein Atoll – Michael Kabua (AKA), Tony A. deBrum (AKA), Jeban Riklon (AKA) Lae Atoll – Rellong D. Lemari (AKA) Lib Island – Jerakoj Jerry Bejang (AKA) Likiep Atoll – Donald F. Capelle (UDP) Majuro Atoll – Wilfred I. Kendall (UDP), David Kramer (IND), Brenson S. Wase (UDP), Vice Speaker Alik J. Alik (UDP), 'H.E. President Jurelang Zedkaia' (UDP) Maloelap Atoll – Michael Konelios (UDP) Mejit Island – Dennis Momotaro (UPP) Mili Atoll – Kejjo Bien (UPP) Namdrik Atoll – Mattlan Zackhras (UDP) Namu Atoll – Kaiboke Kabua (AKA) Rongelap Atoll – Kenneth Kedi (IND) Ujae Atoll – Frederick H. Muller (UPP) Utirik Atoll – Amenta Matthew (IND) Wotho Atoll – David Kabua (AKA) Wotje Atoll – Litokwa Tomeing (UPP) Foreign affairs and defense Further information: Compact of Free Association The Compact of Free Association with the United States gives the U.S. sole responsibility for international defense of the Marshall Islands. It allows islanders to live and work in the United States, and establishes economic and technical aid programs. Geography Main articles: Geography of the Marshall Islands and Administrative divisions of the Marshall Islands Map of the Marshall Islands Beach scenery at Laura, Majuro. The islands are located north of Nauru and Kiribati, east of the Federated States of Micronesia, and south of the U.S. territory of Wake Island, to which it lays claim. The country consists of 29 atolls and 5 isolated islands. The atolls and islands form two groups: the Ratak Chain and the Ralik Chain (meaning "sunrise" and "sunset" chains). 24 of them are inhabited (see above section). The uninhabited atolls are: Ailinginae Atoll Bikar (Bikaar) Atoll Bikini Atoll Bokak Atoll Erikub Atoll Jemo Island Nadikdik Atoll Rongerik Atoll Toke Atoll Ujelang Atoll A majority of the islands' land mass is at sea level. Shark sanctuary In October 2011, the government declared that an area covering nearly 2,000,000 square kilometres (772,000 sq mi) of ocean shall be reserved as a shark sanctuary. This is the world's largest shark sanctuary, extending the worldwide ocean area in which sharks are protected from 2,700,000 square kilometres (1,042,000 sq mi) to 4,600,000 square kilometres (1,776,000 sq mi). In protected waters all shark fishing is banned and all by-catch must be released. However, the ability of the Marshall Islands to enforce this zone has been questioned.[21] Territorial claim on Wake Island The Marshall Islands also lays claim to Wake Island. While Wake has been administered by the United States since 1899, the Marshallese government refers to it by the name Enen-kio. Climate Average monthly temperatures (red) and precipitation (blue) on Majuro. The climate is hot and humid, with a wet season from May to November. The islands occasionally suffer from typhoons. Many Pacific typhoons start in the Marshall Islands region and grow stronger as they move west toward the Mariana Islands and the Philippines. Climate-related emergencies In 2008, extreme waves and high tides caused widespread flooding in the capital city of Majuro and other urban centres, located at 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) above sea level. On Christmas morning in 2008, the government declared a state of emergency.[22] According to the president of Nauru, the Marshall Islands are the nation ranked as the most endangered due to flooding from climate change.[23] Economy Main article: Economy of the Marshall Islands Graphical depiction of Marshall Islands's product exports in 28 color coded categories. The islands have few natural resources, and imports far exceed exports. Labor In 2007, the Marshall Islands joined the International Labor Organization, which means its labor laws will comply with international benchmarks. This will impact business conditions in the islands.[24] Taxation The income tax has two brackets, with rates of 8% and 14%. The corporate tax is 11.5%. The general sales tax is 6%. There are no property taxes. Foreign assistance United States government assistance is the mainstay of the economy. Under the terms of the Amended Compact of Free Association, the U.S. will provide US$57.7 million per year to the Marshall Islands (RMI) through 2013, and then US$62.7 million through 2023, at which time a trust fund, made up of U.S. and RMI contributions, will begin perpetual annual payouts.[25] The United States Army maintains its Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Kwajalein Atoll. Marshallese land owners receive rent for the base, and a large number[quantify] of Marshallese work there. The main airport was built by the Japanese during World War II, and the only tarmac road of the capital was built partly by the Taiwanese and partly by the Americans. Agriculture Agricultural production is concentrated on small farms. The most-important commercial crops are coconuts, tomatoes, melons, and breadfruit. Industry Small-scale industry is limited to handicrafts, fish processing, and copra. Fishing Fishing has been critical to the economy of this island nation since its settlement. In 1999, a private company built a tuna loining plant with more than 400 employees, mostly women. But the plant closed in 2005, after a failed attempt to convert it to produce tuna steaks, a process that requires half as many employees. Operating costs exceeded revenue, and the plant's owners tried to partner with the government to prevent closure. But government officials personally interested in an economic stake in the plant refused to help. After the plant closed, it was taken over by the government, which had been the guarantor of a $2 million loan to the business. Energy On September 15, 2007, Witon Barry (of the Tobolar Copra processing plant in the Marshall Islands capital of Majuro) said power authorities, private companies, and entrepreneurs had been experimenting with coconut oil as alternative to diesel fuel for vehicles, power generators, and ships. Coconut trees abound in the Pacific's tropical islands. Copra, the meat of the coconut, yields coconut oil (1 liter for every 6 to 10 coconuts).[26] Demographics Main article: Demographics of the Marshall Islands There are 68,000 people living in the Marshall Islands. Most of these are Marshallese. The Marshallese are of Micronesian origin and migrated from Asia several thousand years ago. A minority of Marshallese have some recent Asian ancestry, mainly Japanese. Two-thirds of the nation's population lives on Majuro, the capital, and Ebeye. The outer islands are sparsely populated due to lack of employment opportunities and economic development. Life on the outer atolls is generally traditional. The official language of the Marshall Islands is Marshallese, but it is common to speak the English language.[27] Religion Main article: Religion in the Marshall Islands Major religious groups in the Republic of the Marshall Islands include the United Church of Christ (formerly Congregational), with 51.5 percent of the population; the Assemblies of God, 24.2 percent; and the Roman Catholic Church, 8.4 percent. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), 8.3 percent;[28] Also represented are Bukot Nan Jesus (also known as Assembly of God Part Two), 2.2 percent; Baptist, 1.0 percent; Seventh-day Adventists, 0.9 percent; Full Gospel, 0.7 percent; and the Baha'i Faith, 0.6 percent.[28] Persons without any religious affiliation account for a small percentage of the population.[28] The Jehovah's Witnesses were believed to have a few hundred practitioners, Jews fewer than 20, and the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community fewer than 10.[28] Education The Marshall Islands Ministry of Education operates the state schools in the Marshall Islands.[29] There are 2 colleges operating in the Marshall Islands. The College of the Marshall Islands (CMI) and The University of the South Pacific. Transportation Main article: Transportation in the Marshall Islands The Marshall Islands are served by the Marshall Islands International Airport in Majuro, the Bucholz Army Airfield in Kwajalein, and other small airports and airstrips. In 2005, Aloha Airlines canceled its flight services to the Marshall Islands. Media The Marshall Islands have several AM and FM radio stations. AM: V7AD 1098 • 1557 FM: V7AD 97.9 • V7AA 104.1 (formerly 96.3) AFRTS: AM 1224 (NPR) • 99.9 (Country) • 101.1 (Active Rock) • 102.1 (Hot AC) Health Nuclear tests at Enewatak have left islanders there suffering from Cancer and birth defects.[30] Culture Marshallese fans Main article: Culture of the Marshall Islands Marshallese is used by the government. Although the ancient skills are now in decline, the Marshallese were once able navigators, using the stars and stick-and-shell charts. Gallery Majuro surroundings Sunset from Wotho Atoll The front of the Dock Security Checkpoint at Roi-Namur See also Geography portal Oceania portal Micronesia portal Outline of the Marshall Islands Index of Marshall Islands-related articles MIVA References ^ Names of the countries of Oceania in local languages, Omniglot. Retrieved 5 March 2011. ^ "Marshall Islands". geonames.de. http://www.geonames.de/coumh.html. Retrieved March 5, 2011.  ^ population.mongabay.com ^ Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (2009) (PDF). World Population Prospects, Table A.1. 2008 revision. United Nations. http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-12.  ^ http://www.indexmundi.com/marshall_islands/demographics_profile.html ^ The History of Mankind by Professor Friedrich Ratzel, Book II, Section A, The Races of Oceania page 165, picture of a stick chart from the Marshall Islands. MacMillan and Co., published 1896. ^ Andrew Sharp (1960)Early Spanish Discoveries in the Pacific 11-3 ^ Wright 1951: 109-10; Sharp 1960: 19-23. ^ Filipiniana Book Guild 1965: 46-8, 91, 240; Sharp 1960: 36-9. ^ a b "Geography of the Marshall Islands". http://www.enenkio.org/adobe/GeographyMarshallIslands.pdf. Retrieved 11 June 2010.  ^ a b c d "Marshall Islands". Pacific Institute of Advanced Studies in Development and Governance (PIAS-DG), University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. http://piasdgserver.usp.ac.fj/peacenet//index.php?id=152. Retrieved 11 June 2010.  ^ "History of the Marshall Islands". Marshall Islands Visitors Authority. http://www.visitmarshallislands.com/history.htm. Retrieved 11 June 2010.  ^ "Marshall Islands". World Statesmen. http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Marshall_islands.htm. Retrieved 11 June 2010.  ^ Dirk H.R. Spennemann. "Mili Island, Mili Atoll: a brief overview of its WWII sites". http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/WWII/Mili.html. Retrieved 11 June 2010.  ^ "Nuclear Weapons Test Map", Public Broadcasting Service ^ a b "Islanders Want The Truth About Bikini Nuclear Test". Japanfocus.org. http://japanfocus.org/-Yoichi-Funabashi/1576. Retrieved 2010-07-04.  ^ Stephanie Cooke (2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age, Black Inc., p. 168. ^ "50 Facts About Nuclear Weapons". Brookings Institution. http://www.brook.edu/FP/PROJECTS/NUCWCOST/50.HTM.  ^ "Constitution of the Marshall Islands". Paclii.org. http://www.paclii.org/mh/legis/consol_act/cotmi363/. Retrieved 2010-07-04.  ^ Johnson, Giff (2010-11-25). "Huge funeral recognizes late Majuro chief". Marianas Variety News & Views. http://mvariety.com/2010112432258/local-news/huge-funeral-recognizes-late-majuro-chief.php. Retrieved 2010-11-28.  ^ "Vast shark sanctuary created in Pacific". BBC News. October 3, 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15142472. Retrieved November 25, 2011.  ^ "Marshall atolls declare emergency ", BBC News, 25 December 2008. ^ http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_5-6_144/ai_n58473630 ^ "Republic of the Marshall Islands becomes 181st ILO member State [Press releases]". Ilo.org. http://www.ilo.org/global/About_the_ILO/Media_and_public_information/Press_releases/lang--en/WCMS_083235/index.htm. Retrieved 2010-07-04.  ^ "COMPACT OF FREE ASSOCIATION AMENDMENTS ACT OF 2003" (PDF). http://www.doi.gov/oia/Firstpginfo/laws/public%20law%20108-188,%20December%2017,%202003.pdf. Retrieved 2010-07-04.  ^ "Pacific Islands look to coconut power to fuel future growth". afp.google.com. 2007-09-13. http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iwlwgv6YIwatWfk9HEp0bSjAiV-Q. Retrieved 2010-07-04.  ^ "Marshall Islands Travel". Wwp.greenwichmeantime.com. 2010-03-11. http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/pacific/marshall-islands/travel.htm. Retrieved 2010-07-04.  ^ a b c d International Religious Freedom Report 2009: Marshall Islands. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (September 14, 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is