8 as High Chief Atal of La Foa managed to unite many of the central tribes and launched a guerrilla war which cost 200 Frenchmen and 1,000 Kanaks their lives.[17] The Kanak population declined from around 60,000 in 1878 to 27,100 in 1921, and their numbers did not increase again until the 1930s.[17] In June 1940, after the fall of France, the Conseil General of New Caledonia voted unanimously to support the Free French government, and in September the pro-Vichy governor was forced to leave for Indochina.[17] In March 1942, with the assistance of Australia,[18] the territory became an important Allied base,[17] and Nouméa the headquarters of the United States Navy and Army in the South Pacific.[19] The fleet which turned back the Japanese navy in the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942 was based at Noumea.[17] American troops counted up to 50,000 men, the equivalent of the contemporary population.[11] In 1946 New Caledonia became an overseas territory.[11] By 1953 French citizenship had been granted to all New Caledonians, regardless of ethnicity.[20] The European and Polynesian populations gradually increased in the years leading to the nickel boom of 1969–72, and the Melanesians became a minority, though they were still the largest single ethnic group.[20] Between 1976 and 1988, New Caledonia adopted five different statutes, with each proving to be a source of discontent and, at times, serious disorder,[11] culminating in 1988 with a bloody hostage taking in Ouvéa. The Matignon Agreements, signed on June 26, 1988, ensured a decade of stability. The Noumea Accord signed May 5, 1998, set the groundwork for a 20-year transitional period that will gradually transfer competences to the local government.[11] Politics Main article: Politics of New Caledonia Logo of the Territorial Congress New Caledonia is a sui generis collectivity that has been gradually transferred certain powers from France.[21] It is governed by a 54-member Territorial Congress, a legislative body composed of members of three provincial assemblies.[22] The French State is represented in the territory by a High Commissioner.[22] At a national level, New Caledonia is represented in the National Assembly by two deputies and a senator.[23] At the 2007 French presidential election the voter turnout in New Caledonia was 68.14%.[24] For 25 years, the party system in New Caledonia was dominated by the anti-independence The Rally–UMP.[22] This dominance ended with the emergence of a new party, Avenir Ensemble, also opposed to independence but considered more open to dialogue with the Kanak movement,[22] which is part of FLNKS, a coalition of several pro-independence groups.[22] Customary authority The Kanak society has several layers of customary authority, from the 4,000-5,000 family-based clans to the eight customary areas (aires coutumières) that make up the territory.[25] Clans are led by clan chiefs and constitute 341 tribes, each headed by a tribal chief. The tribes are further grouped into 57 customary chiefdoms (chefferies), each headed by a Head Chief, and forming the administrative subdivisions of the customary areas.[25] Jean Lèques during a ceremony honoring U.S. service members who helped ensure the freedom of New Caledonia during World War II. The Customary Senate is the assembly of the various traditional councils of the Kanaks, and has jurisdiction over the law proposals concerning the Kanak identity.[26] The Customary Senate is composed of sixteen members appointed by each traditional council, with two representatives per each customary area.[26] In its advisory role, the Customary Senate must be consulted on law proposals "concerning the Kanak identity" as defined in the Noumea Accord.[26] It also has a deliberative role on law proposals that would affect identity, the civil customary statute and the land system.[26] A new President is appointed each year in August or September, and the presidency rotates between the eight customary areas.[26] Kanak people recourse to customary authorities regarding civil matters such as marriage, adoption, inheritance, and some land issues.[25] The French administration typically respects decisions made in the customary system.[25] However, their jurisdiction is sharply limited in penal matters, as some elements of the customary justice system, including the use of corporal punishment, are seen as clashing with the human rights obligations of France.[25] Military The Armed Forces of New Caledonia (French: Forces armées de Nouvelle-Calédonie) include about 2,000 soldiers, mainly deployed in Koumac, Nandi, Tontouta, Plum and Noumea.[27] The land forces consist of a regiment of the Troupes de marine, the Régiment d’infanterie de marine du Pacifique. The naval forces include two P400 class patrol vessels, a BATRAL and a patrol boat of the Maritime Gendarmerie.[27] The air force is made up of three Casa transport aircraft, four Puma helicopters and a Fennec helicopter, based in Tontouta.[27] In addition, 760 gendarmes are deployed on the archipelago.[27] Status Second official national flag Since 1986 the United Nations Committee on Decolonization has included New Caledonia on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories.[citation needed] Under the Noumea Accord, signed in 1998 following a period of secessionist unrest in the 1980s, New Caledonia is to hold a referendum on independence between 2014 and 2018.[28] The official name of the territory, Nouvelle-Calédonie, could be changed in the near future due to the accord, which stated that "a name, a flag, an anthem, a motto, and the design of banknotes will have to be sought by all parties together, to express the Kanak identity and the future shared by all parties."[29] To date, however, there has been no consensus on a new name for the territory.[30] New Caledonia has increasingly adopted its own symbols, choosing an anthem, a motto, and a new design for its banknotes.[31] In July 2010, New Caledonia adopted the Kanak flag, alongside the existing French tricolor, as the dual official flags of the territory.[32] The adoption made New Caledonia one of the few countries or territories in the world with two official national flags.[32] The decision to use two flags has been a constant battleground between the two sides and led the coalition government to collapse in February 2011.[28] Administrative divisions Main article: Administrative divisions of New Caledonia The institutional organization is the result of the organic law and ordinary law passed by the Parliament on February 16, 1999.[21] The archipelago is divided into three provinces: South Province (province Sud). Provincial capital: Nouméa. Population: 183,007 inhabitants (2009). North Province (province Nord). Provincial capital: Koné. Population: 45,137 inhabitants (2009). Loyalty Islands Province (province des îles Loyauté). Provincial capital: Lifou. Population: 17,436 inhabitants (2009). New Caledonia is further divided into 33 municipalities:[21] One commune, Poya, is divided between two provinces. The northern half of Poya, with the main settlement and most of the population, is part of the North Province, while the southern half of the commune, with only 127 inhabitants in 2009, is part of the South Province.      South Province      North Province      Loyalty Islands Province Thio Yaté L'Île-des-Pins Le Mont-Dore Nouméa Dumbéa Païta Bouloupari La Foa Sarraméa Farino Moindou Bourail Poya (part north) Poya (part south) Pouembout Koné Voh Kaala-Gomen Koumac Poum Belep Ouégoa Pouébo Hienghène Touho Poindimié Ponérihouen Houaïlou Kouaoua Canala Ouvéa Lifou Maré Geography Main article: Geography of New Caledonia New Caledonia is part of Zealandia, a fragment of the ancient Gondwana super-continent. Zealandia separated from Australia 60–85 million years ago.[33] New Caledonia itself separated from Australia 65 million years ago, subsequently drifting in a north-easterly direction, reaching its present position about 50 million years ago.[34] The mainland is divided in length by a central mountain range whose highest peak are Mount Panié (1629 m) in the north and Mount Humboldt (1618 m) in the southeast.[35] The east coast is covered by a lush vegetation.[35] The west coast, with its large savannahs and plains suitable for farming, is a drier area. Many ore-rich massifs are found along this coast.[35] The Diahot River is the longest river of New Caledonia, flowing for some 100 kilometres (62 mi).[36] It has a catchment area of 620 square kilometres and opens north-westward into the Baie d'Harcourt, flowing towards the northern point of the island along the western escarpment of the Mount Panié.[36][37] Most of the island is covered by wet evergreen forests, while savannahs dominate the lower elevations.[38] The New Caledonian lagoon, with a total area of ??24,000 square kilometers is one of the largest lagoons in the world. It is surrounded by the New Caledonia Barrier Reef.[35] New Caledonia from space Climate The climate is tropical, with hot and humid period from November to March with temperatures between 27°C and 30°C,[35] and a cooler, dry period from June to August with temperatures between 20°C and 23°C,[35] linked by two short transition periods.[11] The tropical climate is strongly moderated by the oceanic influence and the trade winds that attenuates humidity, which can be close to 80%.[35] The average annual temperature is 23°C, with historical extremes of 2.3°C and 39.1°C.[11] The rainfall records show that precipitations differ greatly within the island. The 3000 mm of rainfall recorded in Galarino are three times the average of the west coast. There are also dry periods, because of the effects of El Niño.[11] Between December and April, tropical depressions and cyclones can cause winds to exceed a speed of 100 km/h with gusts of 250 km/h and very abundant rainfall.[11] The last cyclone affecting New Caledonia was Cyclone Vania (2011), in January 2011. Environment See also: Biodiversity of New Caledonia La Poule (the hen) in Hienghène. New Caledonia has many unique animals, especially birds[39] It has the richest diversity in the world per square kilometre.[39]and plants. In its botany not only species but entire genera and even families are unique to the island, and survive nowhere else. The biodiversity is caused by Grande Terre's central mountain range, which has created a variety of niches, landforms and micro-climates where endemic species thrive.[39] Bruno Van Peteghem who was in 2001 awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize for his efforts on behalf of the Caledonian ecological protection movement in the face of "serious challenges" from Jacques Lafleur's RPCR party.[40] Progress has been made in a few areas in addressing the protection of New Caledonia's ecological diversity from fire, industrial and residential development, unrestricted agricultural activity and mining (such as the judicial revocation of INCO's mining license in June 2006 owing to claimed abuses).[41] Flora Typical terrain in the south of the islands at Grand Terre New Caledonia’s fauna and flora derive from ancestral species isolated in the region when it broke away from Gondwana many tens of millions of years ago.[42] Not only endemic species have evolved here, but entire genera and even families are unique to the islands. More tropical Gymnosperm species are endemic to New Caledonia than to any similar region on Earth. Of the 44 indigenous species of gymnosperms, 43 are endemic, including the only known parasitic Gymnosperm (Parasitaxus usta).[43] Again, of the 35 known species of Araucaria, 13 are endemic to New Caledonia.[39] The world's largest extant species of fern, Cyathea intermedia, also is endemic to New Caledonia. It is very common on acid ground, and grows about one metre per year on the east coast, usually on fallow ground or in forest clearings. There also are other species of Cyathea, notably Cyathea novae-caledoniae.[44] New Caledonia also is one of five regions on the planet where species of Nothofagus are indigenous; five species are known to occur here.[43] New Caledonia has its own version of maquis (maquis minier) occurs on metalliferous soils, mostly in the south.[38] The soils of ultramafic rocks (mining terrains) have been a refuge for many native flora species because they are toxic and their mineral content is poorly suited to most foreign species of plants.[43] Fauna The endemic Kagu bird New Caledonia is home to the New Caledonian crow, a bird noted for its tool-making abilities, which rival that of primates.[45] These crows are renowned for their extraordinary intelligence and ability to fashion tools to solve problems, and make the most complex tools of any animal yet studied apart from humans.[46] The endemic Kagu, agile and able to run fast, is a flightless bird, but it is able to use its wings to climb branches or glide. It is the surviving member of monotypic family Rhynochetidae, order Gruiformes.[47] There are 11 endemic fish species and 14 endemic species of decapod crustaceans in the rivers and lakes of New Caledonia. Some exist only in small areas such as Neogalaxias.[48] The Nautilus, considered a living fossil and close to the Ammonites which became extinct at the end of the Mesozoic era, occurs in Pacific waters around New Caledonia.[48] Several species of New Caledonia are remarkable for their size: the Ducula goliath is the largest extant species of pigeon; Rhacodactylus leachianus, the largest gecko in the world; the Phoboscincus bocourti the largest skink in the world, thought to be extinct but rediscovered in 2003.[48] Demographics Historical populations Year Pop. ±% 1956 68,480 — 1963 86,519 +26.3% 1969 100,579 +16.3% 1976 133,233 +32.5% 1983 145,368 +9.1% 1989 164,173 +12.9% 1996 196,836 +19.9% 2004 230,789 +17.2% 2009 245,580 +6.4% ISEE[3] At the last census in 2009 New Caledonia had a population of 245,580.[49] Of these, 17,436 live in the Loyalty Islands Province, 45,137 in the North Province, and 183,007 in the South Province.[6] Population growth has slowed down since the 1990s, but remains strong with a yearly increase of 1.7% between 1996 and 2009.[49] Natural growth is responsible for 85% of the population growth, while the remaining 15% is attributable to net migration.[49] The population growth is strong in the Southern province (2.3% per year between 1996 and 2009), moderate in the Northern Province (0.7%), but negative in the Loyalty Islands, which are losing inhabitants (- 1.3%).[49] Over 40% of the population is under 20,[6] although the rate of older people on the total population is increasing.[49] Two residents of New Caledonia out of three live in Greater Nouméa.[49] Three out of four were born in New Caledonia.[49] The total fertility rate went from 3.2 children per woman in 1990 to 2.2 in 2007.[49] Ethnic groups Communities, 2009[50] Kanak 99,078 40.34% European 71,721 29.20% Wallisian, Futunan 21,262 8.66% Tahitian 4,985 2.03% Indonesian 3,985 1.62% Vietnamese 2,357 0.96% Ni-Vanuatu 2,327 0.95% Other Asian 1,857 0.76% Other 14,743 6.00% Multiple communities 20,398 8.31% Not declared 2,867 1.17% Total 245,580 100.00% In 2009, 40.3% of the population reported belonging to the Kanak community, 29.2% to the European community and 8.7% to the community originating from Wallis and Futuna. The remaining identified communities represented 7.3% of the population, and included Tahitians (2.0%), Indonesians (1.6%), Vietnamese (1.0%), Ni-Vanuatu (0.9%) other Asian (0.8%) and other (1.0%). 8.3% belonged to multiple communities, 5% declared their community as "Caledonian", 1.2% did not respond.[51] The question on community belonging, which had been left out of the 2004 census, was reintroduced in 2009 under a new formulation, different from the 1996 census, allowing multiple choices and the possibility to clarify the choice "other".[51] Kanak women. The Kanak people, part of the Melanesian group, are indigenous to New Caledonia.[52] Their social organization is traditionally based around clans, which identify as either “land” or “sea” clans, depending on their original location and the occupation of their ancestors.[52] According to the 2009 census, the Kanak constitute 94% of the population in the Loyalty Islands Province, 74% in the North Province and 27% in the South Province.[52] The Kanak live in relatively poor socio-economic situations.[52] Europeans first settled in New Caledonia when France established a penal colony on the archipelago.[52] Once the prisoners had completed their sentences, they were given land to settle.[52] According to the 2009 census, of the 71,721 Europeans in New Caledonia 32,354 were native-born, 33,551 were born in other parts of France, and 5,816 were born abroad.[50] The Europeans are divided into several groups: the Caldoche are usually defined as those born in New Caledonia who have ancestral ties that span back to the early French settlers.[53] They often settled in the rural areas of the western coast of Grande Terre, where many continue to run large cattle properties.[53] Distinct from the Caldoches are those were born in New Caledonia from families that had settled more recently, and are called simply Caledonians.[53] The French-born immigrants who come to New Caledonia are called métros, indicating their origins in metropolitan France.[53] There is also a community of about 2,000[53] pieds noirs,[54] some of them prominent in anti-independence politics, including Pierre Maresca, a leader of the RPCR.[55] Languages and religion Nouméa Cathedral, seat of the Archdiocese of Nouméa Main article: Languages of New Caledonia The French language began to spread with the establishment of French settlements, and French is now spoken even in the most secluded villages. The level of fluency, however, varies significantly across the population as a whole, primarily due to the absence of universal access to public education before 1953, but also due to immigration and ethnic diversity.[56] At the 2009 census, 97.3% of people aged 15 or older reported that they could speak, read and write French, whereas only 1.1% reported that they had no knowledge of French.[57] The 28 Kanak languages ?spoken in New Caledonia are part of the Oceanic group of the Austronesian family.[58] Kanak languages ??are taught from kindergarten (4 languages ??are taught up to the bachelor's degree) and an academy is responsible for their promotion.[59] The three most widely spoken languages ??are Drehu (spoken in Lifou), Nengone (Maré) and Paicî (north of Grande Terre).[59] At the 2009 census, 35.8% of people aged 15 or older reported that they could speak (but not necessarily read or write) one of the indigenous Melanesian languages, whereas 58.7% reported that they had no knowledge of any of them.[57] The Roman Catholic Church claims half of the population as adherents, including almost all of the Europeans, Uveans, and Vietnamese and half of the Melanesian and Tahitian minorities.[20] Of the Protestant churches, the Free Evangelical Church and the Evangelical Church in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands have the largest number of adherents; their memberships are almost entirely Melanesian.[20] There are also numerous other Christian groups and small numbers of Muslims.[20] Economy Main article: Economy of New Caledonia New Caledonia has one of the largest economies in the South Pacific, with a GDP per capita slightly higher than New Zealand, though there is significant inequality in income distribution,[60] and long-standing structural imbalances between the economically dominant South Province and the less developed North Province and Loyalty Islands.[22] The currency in use in New Caledonia is the CF