ic mission, Oman played a major role in the Wars of Apostasy that occurred after the death of Muhammad, and also took part in the great Islamic conquests by land and sea in Iraq, Persia and beyond. Oman's most prominent role in this respect was through its extensive trading and seafaring activities in East Africa and the Far East, particularly during the 19th century, when it propagated Islam to many of East Africa's coastal regions, certain areas of Central Africa, India, Southeast Asia and China. After its conversion to Islam, Oman was ruled by Umayyads between 661–750, Abbasids between 750–931, 932–933 and 934–967, Qarmatians between 931–932 and 933–934, Buyids between 967–1053, and the Seljuks of Kirman between 1053–1154. Portuguese colonization A decade after Vasco da Gama discovered the seaway to India in 1498, Portuguese explorers arrived in Oman and occupied Muscat for a 140-year period, between 1508 and 1648. In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the Portuguese colonists built up and fortified the city, where remnants of their colonial architectural style still remain. Rebellious tribes eventually drove out the Portuguese, but were pushed out themselves about a century later, in 1741, by the leader of a Yemeni tribe leading a massive army from various allied tribes, beginning the current line of ruling sultans. Excepting a brief Persian invasion in the late 1740s, Oman has been self-governing ever since. Neither the Portuguese nor the Persians controlled the entirety of what is now Oman. The majority of the territory was ruled by tribes, and the colonists were wholly contained to a few port cities. It is thus incorrect to allude to their role, even if unintentionally, in the same vein as other episodes of European colonization, such as the British in India. Oman, East Africa and the Indian Ocean The Sultan's Palace in Zanzibar, which was once Oman's capital and residence of its Sultans. In the 1690s, Saif bin Sultan, the Imam of Oman, pressed down the East African coast. A major obstacle to his progress was Fort Jesus, housing the garrison of a Portuguese settlement at Mombasa. After a two-year siege, the fort fell to bin Sultan in 1698. Thereafter the Omanis easily ejected the Portuguese from Zanzibar and from all other coastal regions north of Mozambique, with the aid of the Somalis. Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main slave market of the East African coast, and became an increasingly important part of the Omani empire, a fact reflected by the decision of the 19th century Sultan of Oman, Sa'id ibn Sultan, to make it his main place of residence in 1837. Sa'id built impressive palaces and gardens in Zanzibar. Rivalry between his two sons was resolved, with the help of forceful British diplomacy, when one of them, Majid, succeeded to Zanzibar and to the many regions claimed by the family on the East African coast. The other son, Thuwaini, inherited Muscat and Oman. A History of Omani presence is also known in Comoros archipelago in the Indian ocean, which led to a great influence in the Comorian culture from the clothing, to the wedding ceremenies. It is said that the capital of Comoros, Moroni, was once the capital of the Omani sultanate empire and a centre of trade for the empire. Oman and Gwadar Main article: Gwadar In 1783, Oman's Saiad Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over Gwadar, a coastal city located in the Makran region of what is now the far southwestern corner of Pakistan, near the present-day border of Iran and at the mouth of the Gulf of Oman.[note 1][12] He was to continue this sovereignty, via an appointed wali (or "governor"), after regaining control of Muscat, and he maintained close relations with the Emirs of Sindh. The Sultans of Muscat retained sovereignty over Gwadar until the 1950s. In 1955, Makran acceded to Pakistan and was made a district – although Gwadar, at the time, was not included in Makran. In 1958, Gwadar and its surrounding areas were returned to Pakistan by Muscat, and were given the status of Tahsil of the Makran district.[note 2][13] Dhofar rebellion Main article: Dhofar Rebellion The Dhofar Rebellion was launched in the province of Dhofar against the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman and Britain from 1962 to 1975. As the rebellion threatened to overthrow the Sultan's rule in Dhofar, Sultan Said bin Taimur was deposed by his son Qaboos bin Said, who introduced major social reforms and modernised the state's administration. The rebellion was ended by the intervention of Iranian Imperial forces, Pakistani Baluchistan Imperial ground forces, British Royal Air Force air power and major offensives by the expanded Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces. 2011 Omani protests Main article: 2011 Omani protests Politics The Sultan's Al Alam Palace in Old Muscat Main articles: Politics of Oman and Human rights in Oman The head of state and of the government is the hereditary sultan, Qaboos bin Said Al Said, who appoints a cabinet called the "Diwans" to assist him. In the early 1990s, the sultan instituted an elected council, the Consultative Assembly of Oman, It had advisory roles until 2011, when Sultan Qaboos decided to give legislative powers to the council, allowing the newly elected parliament to question ministers, propose laws and suggest changes to government regulations.[14] There are no legal political parties in Oman. As more and more young Omanis return from education abroad, it seems likely that the traditional, tribal-based political system will have to be adjusted.[15] A State Consultative Council, established in 1981, consisted of 55 appointed representatives of government, the private sector, and regional interests. Foreign policy Main article: Foreign relations of Oman Since 1970, Oman has pursued a moderate foreign policy and expanded its diplomatic relations dramatically. Oman is among the very few Arab countries that have maintained friendly ties with Iran.[16][17] Wikileaks disclosed US diplomatic cables which have shown that cordial relations between Oman and Iran have borne fruit for the United Kingdom (in helping release British sailors imprisoned by Iran).[18] The same cables also portray the Omani government as wishing to maintain cordial relations with Iran and as having continuously turned down US diplomats requesting Oman to take a sterner stance against Iran.[19][20][21][22] Military This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) Main article: Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces Oman's armed forces, the Sultan's Armed Forces (SAF), including Royal Household troops, numbered 120,000 in 2010, consisting of: 105,000 personnel in the Royal Army of Oman (RAO), equipped with over 120 main battle tanks and 37 Scorpion tanks; 8,100 personnel in the Royal Air Force of Oman (RAFO) operating 180–200 combat aircraft, trainers, transports and helicopters; and 6,200 personnel in the Royal Navy of Oman (RNO) sailing 64 patrol and coastal vessels. Paramilitary units include the Tribal Home Guard (Firqats) of 8,000 personnel organized in small tribal teams, a Royal Oman Police (ROP) coast guard of 400, and a small ROP air wing. Funded directly by the Sultan, the elite Royal Household brigade, naval unit, and air unit number 6,400, including two special forces regiments. Oman holds one of the world's largest amounts of Scud missiles, ranging at an estimate of over 30,000 ballistic missiles. In 2008 Oman spent 7.7% of GDP on military expenditures.[23] According to Times Online, Oman is home to the world's only camel-backed bagpipe military band. Geography Coast of Sur, Oman Main articles: Geography of Oman and Geology of Oman Geography of Oman Coastline 2,092 km Bordering countries Saudi Arabia, UAE and Yemen Oman lies between latitudes 16° and 28° N, and longitudes 52° and 60° E. A vast gravel desert plain covers most of central Oman, with mountain ranges along the north (Al Hajar Mountains) and southeast coast, where the country's main cities are also located: the capital city Muscat, Sohar and Sur in the north, and Salalah in the south. Oman's climate is hot and dry in the interior and humid along the coast. During past epochs Oman was covered by ocean, witnessed by the large numbers of fossilized shells existing in areas of the desert away from the modern coastline. Desert landscape in Oman The peninsula of Musandam (Musandem) exclave, which has a strategic location on the Strait of Hormuz, is separated from the rest of Oman by the United Arab Emirates.[24] The series of small towns known collectively as Dibba are the gateway to the Musandam peninsula on land and the fishing villages of Musandam by sea, with boats available for hire at Khasab for trips into the Musandam peninsula by sea. Oman's other exclave, inside UAE territory, known as Madha, located halfway between the Musandam Peninsula and the main body of Oman,[24] is part of the Musandam governorate, covering approximately 75 km2 (29 sq mi). Madha's boundary was settled in 1969, with the north-east corner of Madha barely 10 m (32.8 ft) from the Fujairah road. Within the Madha exclave is a UAE enclave called Nahwa, belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah, situated about 8 km (5 mi) along a dirt track west of the town of New Madha, consisting of about forty houses with a clinic and telephone exchange.[25] Climate Main article: Climate of Oman Oman has a hot climate and very little rainfall. Annual rainfall in Muscat averages 100 mm (3.9 in), falling mostly in January. Dhofar is subject to the southwest monsoon, and rainfall up to 640 mm (25.2 in) has been recorded in the rainy season from late June to October.[citation needed] While the mountain areas receive more plentiful rainfall, some parts of the coast, particularly near the island of Masirah, sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. The climate generally is very hot, with temperatures reaching around 50 °C (122.0 °F) (peak) in the hot season, from May to September. Climate data for Oman Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °F (°C) 81 (27) 79 (26) 84 (29) 93 (34) 102 (39) 104 (40) 100 (38) 97 (36) 97 (36) 95 (35) 86 (30) 81 (27) 91.5 (33.1) Average low °F (°C) 63 (17) 63 (17) 70 (21) 75 (24) 84 (29) 88 (31) 86 (30) 82 (28) 81 (27) 75 (24) 70 (21) 64 (18) 75.1 (23.9) Precipitation inches (mm) 0.5 (12.7) 1 (25.4) 0.598 (15.2) 0.701 (17.8) 0.299 (7.6) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0.299 (7.6) 0.5 (12.7) 3.9 (99) Source: weather.com[26] Flora and fauna Nakhal palm tree farms in the Batina Region, Sultanate of Oman Desert shrub and desert grass, common to southern Arabia, are found, but vegetation is sparse in the interior plateau, which is largely gravel desert. The greater monsoon rainfall in Dhofar and the mountains makes the growth there more luxuriant during summer; coconut palms grow plentifully in the coastal plains of Dhofar and frankincense is produced in the hills, with abundant oleander and varieties of acacia. The Al Hajar Mountains are a distinct ecoregion, the highest points in eastern Arabia with wildlife including the Arabian tahr. Indigenous mammals include the leopard, hyena, fox, wolf, and hare, oryx and ibex. Birds include the vulture, eagle, stork, bustard, Arabian partridge, bee eater, falcon and sunbird. in 2001 Oman had nine endangered species of mammals and five endangered types of birds[citation needed] and nineteen threatened plant species. Decrees have been passed to protect endangered species, including the Arabian leopard, Arabian Oryx, Mountain gazelle, Goitered Gazelle, Arabian tahr, Green sea turtle, Hawksbill Turtle and Olive ridley turtle, but UNESCO have de-listed the Oman Arabian Oryx sanctuary from the World Heritage list due to the government's decision to reduce the site to 10% of its former size.[27] Administrative divisions Main article: Regions and governorates of Oman Since 28 October 2011, Oman is divided into eleven governorates (muhafazah):[28][29][30] Ad Dakhiliyah Ad Dhahirah North Al Batinah North Al Batinah South Al Buraimi Al Wusta Ash Sharqiyah North Ash Sharqiyah South Dhofar Masqat Musandam Below the governorates, Oman is divided into provinces (wilayat). Environment Drought and limited rainfall contribute to shortages in the nation's water supply, so maintaining an adequate supply of water for agricultural and domestic use is one of Oman's most pressing environmental problems, with limited renewable water resources; 94% of available water is used in farming and 2% for industrial activity, with the majority sourced from fossil water in the desert areas and spring water in hills and mountains. Drinking water is available throughout the country, either piped or delivered. The soil in coastal plains, such as Salalah, have shown increased levels of salinity, due to over exploitation of ground water and encroachment by seawater in the water table. Pollution of beaches and other coastal areas by oil tanker traffic through the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman is also a persistent risk. Demographics of Oman Languages Arabic,Balochi, English Religion Ibadi Islam Ethnic groups Arab, Baloch, South Asian and African Life expectancy 73.13 years Demographics Main article: Demographics of Oman According to the 2010 census, the total population was 2.773 million and of those, 1.96 million were Omanis. The population has grown from 2.340 million in the 2003 census. In Oman, about 50% of the population lives in Muscat and the Batinah coastal plain northwest of the capital; about 200,000 live in the Dhofar (southern) region, and about 30,000 live in the remote Musandam Peninsula on the Strait of Hormuz. Some 600,000 foreigners live in Oman, most of whom are guest workers from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, India and the Philippines. Religion The Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque is the largest Mosque in Oman and one of the largest in the world. Around 67% of the population consists of Ibadhi, a form of Islam distinct from the Sunni and Shia denominations, 32% Sunni Muslims and the Shiia forming the remaining 1% of the Omani population. The Oman government does not keep statistics on religious affiliation, but most citizens are Muslims.[31] Non-Muslim religious communities individually constitute less than 5% of the population and include various groups of Hindus, Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Baha'is, and Christians. Christian communities are centered in the major urban areas of Muscat, Sohar, and Salalah and include Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and various Protestant congregations, organizing along linguistic and ethnic lines. More than 50 different Christian groups, fellowships, and assemblies are active in the Muscat metropolitan area, formed by migrant workers from Southeast Asia, although there are small communities of ethnic Indian Hindus and Christians that have been naturalized.[citation needed] Many of the non-Muslims in Oman are due to the historical and cultural influence of India. Economy Economy of Oman The Central Bank of Oman Currency Omani Riyal (R$, OMR) Fiscal year Calendar year Central Bank Central Bank of Oman Stock Market Muscat Stock Market Main article: Economy of Oman This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008) Oman's Basic Statute of the State expresses in Article 11 that, "The National Economy is based on justice and the principles of a free economy." Omani citizens enjoy good living standards, but the future is uncertain with Oman's limited oil reserves.[31] Other sources of income, agriculture and industry, are small in comparison and count for less than 1% of the country's exports, but diversification is seen as a priority in the government of Oman. Agriculture, often subsistence in its character, produces dates, limes, grains and vegetables, but with less than 1% of the country under cultivation Oman is likely to remain a net importer of food. Since the slump in oil prices in 1998, Oman has made active plans to diversify its economy and is placing a greater emphasis on other areas of industry, such as tourism. Oil and gas Petrochemical tanks in Sohar Oman's proved reserves of petroleum total about 5.5 billion barrels, 24th largest in the world.[32] Oil is extracted and processed by Petroleum Development Oman (PDO), with proven oil reserves holding approximately steady, although oil production has been declining.[33][34] In 2009, production was estimated at 816,000 barrels per day.[35] Commercial export of oil began in 1967 and since Sultan Qaboos' accession to the throne in 1970, many more oil fields have been found and developed. In June 1999, PDO discovered a new oil field in southern Oman after drilling and testing three wells which demonstrated the commercial viability of the reservoir. Work is continuing on the RO 503.876 million (US$1.3 billion) oil refinery project in Sohar, which was due to go into operation in 2006 with a 116,400 barrels per day (18,510 m3/d) refining capacity, with the short to mid-term future of Oman resting on the project. In 2004 the Oman Oil Refinery was supplied with about 78,200 barrels per day (12,430 m3/d) for refining, while PDO began using steam injection technology in several wells to increase their productivity. Natural gas has increased greatly in importance due to the exploitation of gas fields and the opening of a processing plant at Sur, on the coast south of Muscat. Oman's natural gas reserves are estimated at 849.5 billion cubic meters, ranking 28th in the world, and production in 2008 was about 24 billion cubic meters per year.[36] Mineral resources Oman's mineral resources include chromite, dolomite, zinc, limestone, gypsum, silicon, copper, gold, cobalt and iron. Several industries have grown up around them as part of the national development process which, in turn, have boosted the minerals sector's contribution to the nation’s GDP as well as providing jobs for Omanis. The mineral sector's operations include mining and quarrying, with several projects recently completed, including: an economic feasibility study on silica ore in Wadi Buwa and Abutan in the Wusta Region, which confirmed that there were exploitable reserves of around 28 million tonnes at the two sites; a feasibility study on the production of magnesium metal from dolomite ore; a draft study on processing limestone derivatives; a project to produce geological maps of the Sharqiyah Region; economic feasibility studies on the exploitation of gold and copper ores in the Ghaizeen area; a study on raw materials in the wilayats of Duqm and Sur for use in the Sultanate's cement industry; and a study on the construction of a new minerals laboratory at Ghala in the Governorate of Muscat. Industry The industrial sector is a cornerstone of the Sultanate’s long-term (1996–2020) development strategy for diversifying the sources of national income and reducing dependence on oil; it is also capable of helping to meet Oman's social development needs and generate greater added value for national resources by processing them into manufactured products. The Seventh Five-Year Development Plan creates the conditions for an attractive investment climate, providing a strategy for the industrial sector aiming to develop the information technology and telecommunications industries. The Knowledge Oasis Muscat complex has been set up and expanded, and Omani companies are developing their technological potential through collaboration with various Japanese and German institutions. There are industrial estates in Sohar, Sur, Sala