This Arab and Islamic victory would set the stage for several successive Muslim empires in South Asia, including the Ghaznavid Empire, the Ghorid Kingdom, the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. During this period, Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional Buddhist and Hindu population to Islam. The gradual decline of the Mughal Empire in the early eighteenth century provided opportunities for the Afghans, Balochis and Sikhs to exercise control over large areas until the British East India Company gained ascendancy over South Asia.[24] The Indian Rebellion of 1857, was the region's last major armed struggle against the British Raj, and it laid the foundations for the generally unarmed freedom struggle led by the Indian National Congress in the twentieth century. In the 1920s and 1930s, a movement led by the Hindu politician Mahatma Gandhi, and displaying commitment to long enshrined Hindu tenet of ahimsa, or non-violence, engaged millions of protesters in mass campaigns of civil disobedience.[25] Independence Movement Main article: Pakistan Movement The All India Muslim League rose to popularity in the late 1930s amid fears of under-representation and neglect of Muslims in politics. On 29 December 1930, Allama Iqbal's presidential address called for an autonomous "state in northwestern India for Indian Muslims, within the body politic of India."[26] Quaid e Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah espoused the Two Nation Theory and led the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution of 1940, popularly known as the Pakistan Resolution. In early 1947, Britain announced the decision to end its rule in India. In June 1947, the nationalist leaders of British India — including Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs — agreed to the proposed terms of transfer of power and independence. The first Governor General Quaid e Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah delivering the opening address on 11 August 1947 to the new state of Pakistan. The modern state of Pakistan was established on 14 August 1947 (27 Ramadan 1366 in the Islamic Calendar), carved out of the two Muslim-majority wings in the eastern and northwestern regions of British India and comprising the provinces of Balochistan, East Bengal, the North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab and Sindh.[27] The controversial, and ill-timed, division of the provinces of Punjab and Bengal caused communal riots across India and Pakistan — millions of Muslims moved to Pakistan and millions of Hindus and Sikhs moved to India. Disputes arose over several princely states including Muslim-majority Jammu and Kashmir, whose Hindu ruler had acceded to India following an invasion by Pashtun tribal militias, leading to the First Kashmir War in 1948.[28] From 1947 to 1956, Pakistan was a Dominion in the Commonwealth of Nations. It became a Republic in 1956, but the civilian rule was stalled by a coup d’état by General Ayub Khan, who was president during 1958–69, a period of internal instability and a second war with India in 1965. His successor, Yahya Khan (1969–71) had to deal with a devastating cyclone — which caused 500,000 deaths in East Pakistan — and also face a civil war in 1971. Economic grievances and political dissent in East Pakistan led to violent political tension and military repression that escalated into a civil war.[29] After nine months of guerrilla warfare between the Pakistan Army and the Indian backed Bengali Mukti Bahini militia, Indian intervention escalated into the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, and ultimately to the secession of East Pakistan as the independent state of Bangladesh.[30] Civilian rule resumed in Pakistan from 1972 to 1977 under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, until he was deposed and later sentenced to death in 1979 by General Zia-ul-Haq, who became the country's third military president. Zia introduced the Islamic Sharia legal code, which increased religious influences on the civil service and the military. With the death of President Zia in a plane crash in 1988, Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the first female Prime Minister of Pakistan. Over the next decade, she fought for power with Nawaz Sharif as the country's political and economic situation worsened. Pakistan got involved in the 1991 Gulf War and sent 5,000 troops as part of a U.S.-led coalition, specifically for the defence of Saudi Arabia.[31] Military tensions in the Kargil conflict with India were followed by a Pakistani military coup d'état in 1999 in which General Pervez Musharraf assumed vast executive powers.[32][33] In 2001, Musharraf became President after the controversial resignation of Rafiq Tarar. After the 2002 parliamentary elections, Musharraf transferred executive powers to the newly-elected Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali, who was succeeded in the 2004 prime-ministerial election by Shaukat Aziz. On 15 November 2007, the National Assembly, for the first time in Pakistan's history, completed its tenure and new elections were called. The exiled political leaders Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif were permitted to return to Pakistan. However, the assassination of Benazir Bhutto during the election campaign in December led to postponement of elections and nationwide riots. Bhutto's Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) won the largest number of seats in the elections held in February 2008 and its member Yousaf Raza Gillani was sworn in as Prime Minister.[34] On 18 August 2008, Pervez Musharraf resigned from the presidency when threatened to faced with impeachment,[35] and was succeeded by current president Asif Ali Zardari. By the end of 2009, more than 3 million Pakistani civilians have been displaced by the on going conflict in North-West Pakistan between the government and Taliban militants.[36] Government and politics Main articles: Government of Pakistan, Politics of Pakistan, and Foreign relations of Pakistan A vie of the Parliament of Pakistan Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gilani was elected on 25 March 2008 Pakistan is a semi-presidential federal democratic republic with Islam as the state religion.[37] The first Constitution of Pakistan was adopted in 1956, but was suspended in 1958 by General Ayub Khan. The Constitution of 1973 — suspended in 1977, by Zia-ul-Haq, but re-instated in 1985 — is the country's most important document, laying the foundations of the current government.[14] The bicameral legislature comprises a 100-member Senate and a 342-member National Assembly. The President is the Head of State and the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces and is elected by an electoral college. The prime minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the National Assembly. Each province has a similar system of government with a directly elected Provincial Assembly in which the leader of the largest party or alliance becomes Chief Minister. Provincial Governors are appointed by the President.[37] The Pakistani military has played an influential role in mainstream politics throughout Pakistan's history, with military presidents ruling from 1958–71, 1977–88 and from 1999–2008.[38] The leftist Pakistan Peoples Party, led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, won support after the loss of East Pakistan but was overthrown amidst riots in 1977.[39] Under the military rule of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, during the 1980s, the anti-feudal, pro-Muhajir Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) was started by unorthodox and educated urban dwellers of Sindh and particularly Karachi. A politically nationalist insurgency in Balochistan was also bloodlessly quelled by military governor Rahimuddin.[40] The 1990s were characterized by coalition politics dominated by the Pakistan Peoples Party and a rejuvenated Muslim League.[37] National Symbols of Pakistan[41] Flag Flag of Pakistan Emblem Faith, Unity, Discipline Anthem Qaumi Tarana Animal Markhor Bird Chukar Flower Jasmine Tree Cedrus deodara Juice Sugarcane juice Sport Field hockey Dress Shalwar Kameez Pakistan is an active member of the United Nations (UN) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the latter of which Pakistan has used as a forum for Enlightened Moderation, a plan to promote a renaissance and enlightenment in the Muslim world.[37] Pakistan is also a member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Economic Cooperation Organisation (ECO).[37] In the past, Pakistan has had mixed relations with the United States; in the early 1950s, Pakistan was the United States' "most allied ally in Asia"[42] and a member of both the Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO) and the Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO). During the Soviet-Afghan War in the 1980s Pakistan was a major U.S. ally.[43] But relations soured in the 1990s, when sanctions were imposed by the U.S. over Pakistan's refusal to abandon its nuclear activities.[44] However, the American War on Terrorism, as an aftermath of 11 September 2001 attacks in U.S.A., led to an improvement in U.S.–Pakistan ties, especially after Pakistan ended its support of the Taliban regime in Kabul. Its positive side was evidenced by a major increase in American military aid, providing Pakistan $4 billion more in three years after the 9/11 attacks than before.[45] On the other hand, Pakistan is presently burdened with nearly 3 million displaced civilians due to the ongoing Afghan war. Since 2004, Pakistan has been referred to as part of the Greater Middle East by the U.S.[46] On 18 February 2008, Pakistan held its general elections after Benazir Bhutto's assassination postponed the original date of 8 January 2008.[47] The Pakistan Peoples Party won the majority of the votes and formed an alliance with the Pakistan Muslim League (N). They nominated and elected Yousaf Raza Gilani as Prime Minister of Pakistan.[48] On 18 August 2008, Pervez Musharraf resigned as President of Pakistan amidst increasing calls for his impeachment.[49] In the presidential election that followed, Asif Ali Zardari of Pakistan People's Party won by a landslide majority and became President of Pakistan.[50] Subdivisions Main articles: Subdivisions of Pakistan, Districts of Pakistan, and List of most populated metropolitan areas in Pakistan Pakistan is a federation of four provinces, a capital territory and federally administered tribal areas. The government of Pakistan exercises de facto jurisdiction over the western parts of the disputed Kashmir region,[6] organized as two separate political entities (Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan). The third tier of government was composed of 26 divisions with two further tiers (districts and tehsils) administered directly from the provincial level. The divisions were abolished in 2001[51] and a new three-tiered system of local government came into effect comprising districts, tehsils and union councils with an elected body at each tier. There are currently 107 districts in Pakistan proper, each with several tehsils and union councils. The tribal areas comprise seven tribal agencies and six Provinces: Balochistan North-West Frontier Province Punjab Sindh Federal Territories: Islamabad Capital Territory Autonomous State: Azad Jammu and Kashmir Gilgit-Baltistan Territory: Federally Administered Tribal Areas Gilgit-Baltistan Azad Kashmir FATA Balochistan Punjab Sindh North-West Frontier Province Islamabad Capital Territory Afghanistan Iran China Republic of India Arabian Sea Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Pakistan and Ethnic groups in Pakistan Population density in Pakistan The estimated population of Pakistan in 2009 was over 180,800,000[52][53] making it the world's sixth most-populous country, behind Brazil and ahead of Russia. By the year 2020, the country's population is expected to reach 220 million, owing to a relatively high growth rate.[54] About 20% of the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day.[55] Population projections for Pakistan are relatively difficult because of the differences in the accuracy of each census and the inconsistencies between various surveys related to the fertility rate, but it is likely that the rate of growth peaked in the 1980s and has since declined significantly.[56] Life expectancy at birth was 63 for females and 62 for males in 2006.[57] Healthy life expectancy at birth was at 54 for males and 52 for females in 2003.[57] Expenditure on health was at 2% of the GDP in 2006.[57] The mortality below 5 was at 97 per 1,000 live births in 2006.[57] The majority of southern Pakistan's population lives along the Indus River. By population size, Karachi is the largest city of Pakistan.[58] In the northern half, most of the population lives about an arc formed by the cities of Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sargodha and Sheikhupura. In the past, the country's population had a relatively high growth rate that has, however, been moderated by declining fertility and birth rates. Dramatic social changes have led to rapid urbanization and the emergence of megacities. During 1990–2003, Pakistan sustained its historical lead as the most urbanized nation in South Asia, with city dwellers making up 36% of its population.[59] Pakistan has a multicultural and multi-ethnic society and hosts one of the largest refugee populations in the world as well as a young population. About 8 million Muhajirs—then roughly one-fourth of the country’s population—arrived from India after independence in 1947.[60] The Urdu-speaking Muhajirs make up nearly half of Karachi's 17 million residents,[61] with Punjabis and Pashtuns also having sizable communities in the city.[62] Approximately 1.7 million Afghan refugees remain in the country, about half of them were born and grew up in Pakistan during the last 30 years.[63] They are not counted in the national census, even the ones born in Pakistan, because they are still considered citizens of Afghanistan. Cities by population (2010 estimate)[64] Rank City Location Population Rank City Location Population view • talk • edit Karachi, Sindh Lahore, Punjab 1 Karachi Sindh 13,205,339 11 Sargodha Punjab 600,501 2 Lahore Punjab 7,129,609 12 Bahawalpur Punjab 543,929 3 Faisalabad Punjab 2,880,675 13 Sialkot Punjab 510,863 4 Rawalpindi Punjab 1,991,656 14 Sukkur Sindh 493,438 5 Multan Punjab 1,606,481 15 Larkana Sindh 456,544 6 Hyderabad Sindh 1,578,367 16 Sheikhupura Punjab 426,980 7 Gujranwala Punjab 1,569,090 17 Jhang Punjab 372,645 8 Peshawar NWFP 1,439,205 18 Rahim Yar Khan Punjab 353,112 9 Quetta Balochistan 896,090 19 Mardan NWFP 352,135 10 Islamabad Capital Territory 689,249 20 Gujrat Punjab 336,727 Languages Pakistan is a multilingual country with more than sixty languages being spoken. English is the official language of Pakistan and used in official business, government, and legal contracts,[14] while Urdu is the national language. Major Ethnic Groups in Pakistan Punjabi is the provincial language of Punjab. Pashto is the provincial language of North-West Frontier Province. Sindhi is the provincial language of Sindh and Balochi is the provincial language of Balochistan.[65] Other languages include Aer, Badeshi, Bagri, Balti, Bateri, Bhaya, Brahui, Burushaski, Chilisso, Dameli, Dehwari, Dhatki, Domaaki, Farsi (Dari), Gawar-Bati, Ghera, Goaria, Gowro, Gujarati, Gujari, Gurgula, Hazaragi, Hindko (two varieties), Jadgali, Jandavra, Kabutra, Kachchi (Kutchi), Kalami, Kalasha, Kalkoti, Kamviri, Kashmiri, Kati, Khetrani, Khowar, Indus Kohistani, Koli (three varieties), Lasi, Loarki, Marwari, Memoni, Od, Ormuri, Pahari-Potwari, Pakistan Sign Language, Palula (Phalura), Sansi, Savi, Shina (two varieties), Torwali, Ushojo, Vaghri, Wakhi, Waneci, and Yidgha.[66] Some of these are endangered languages with a relatively small number of speakers and others have hundreds of thousands of speakers. Most of the languages belong to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. The exceptions are Burushaski, which is a language isolate; Balti, which is Sino-TIbetan; and Brahui, which is Dravidian. Religions Main article: Religion in Pakistan Religion in Pakistan Religion Percent Islam  ? 96% Hinduism  ? 1.85% Sikhism  ? 0.001% Christianity  ? 1.6% Other  ? 0.549% Pakistan is the second-most populous Muslim-majority country[9][67] and also has the second-largest Shi'a population in the world.[10] About 95% of the Pakistanis are Muslim, of which nearly 75% are Sunni and 20% are Shi'a.[14] Although the two groups of Muslims usually coexist peacefully, sectarian violence occurs sporadically.[68] The religious breakdown of the country is as follows:[14] Islam 173,000,000 (96%) (nearly 70% are Sunni Muslims and 20% are Shi'a Muslims). Hinduism 3,200,000 (1.85%) Christianity 2,800,000 (1.6%) Sikhs Around 20,000 (0.001%) The remaining are Parsis, Ahmadi Muslims, Buddhists, Jews, Bahá'ís, and Animists (mainly the Kalasha of Chitral).[69] Military Pakistan Air Force F-16 fighter aircraft Pakistan's nuclear capable Babur cruise missile Main article: Military of Pakistan Further information: War in North-West Pakistan The armed forces of Pakistan are an all-volunteer force and the sixth-largest in the world. The three main services are the Army, Navy and the Air Force, supported by a number of paramilitary forces which carry out internal security roles and border patrols. The National Command Authority is responsible for exercising employment and development control of all strategic nuclear forces and organizations. The Pakistan military first saw combat in the First Kashmir War, gaining control of what is now Azad Kashmir. In 1961, the army repelled a major Afghan incursion on Pakistan's western border.[70] Pakistan and India would be at war again in 1965 and in 1971. In 1973, the military quelled a Baloch nationalist uprising. During the Soviet-Afghan war, Pakistan shot down several intruding pro-Soviet Afghan aircraft and provided covert support to the Afghan mujahideen through the Inter-Services Intelligence agency. In 1999, Pakistan was involved in the Kargil conflict with India. Currently, the military is engaged in an armed conflict with extremist Islamic militants in the north-west of the country. The Pakistani armed forces contributed to United Nations peacekeeping efforts, with more than 10,700 personnel deployed in 2009,[71] and are presently the largest contributor. In the past, Pakistani personnel have volunteered to serve alongside Arab forces in conflicts with Israel. Pakistan provided a military contingent to the U.N.-backed coalition in the first Gulf War.[72] Pakistan's military employs armaments that include atomic weapons, mobile vehicle ballistic missile systems, laser communication systems, armored cars and tanks, and multi-role fighter/bomber jets. Since 2004, Pakistani armed forces are engaged in fighting against Pakistani Taliban groups. Ever since the militant groups have been retaliating by suicide bombings in Pakistani cities, killing more than 3,000 civilians and armed personnels only in 2009.[73] Geography and climate Main article: Geography of Pakistan The Baltoro Glacier, Northern Pakistan, is one of the longest glaciers outside of the polar regions. K2 is the highest peak in Pakistan and 2nd highest peak on earth Pakistan covers 340,403 square miles (881,640 km2),[74] approximately equalling the combined land areas of France and the United Kingdom. Its eastern regions are located on the Indian tectonic plate and the western and northern regions on the Iranian plateau and Eurasian landplate. Apart from the 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) Arabian Sea coastline, Pakistan's land borders total 6,774 kilometres—2,430 kilometres (1,509 mi) with Afghanistan to the northwest, 5