of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía.[25] The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).[26] The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.[27] In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against president Fernando Belaunde. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain widespread support.[28] In 1975, General Francisco Morales Bermúdez forcefully replaced Velasco, paralyzed reforms, and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.[29] During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and massive political violence.[30] Under the presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), the country started to recover; however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial 2000 elections.[31] Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth.[32] Government Main articles: Government of Peru and Politics of Peru Congress sits in the Palacio Legislativo in Lima. Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state and government; he or she is elected for five years and can only seek re-election after standing down for at least one full term.[33] The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.[34] Congress is unicameral with 130 members elected for a five-year term.[35] Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.[36] The judiciary is nominally independent,[37] though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.[38] The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70.[39] General elections held in 2011 ended in a second-round victory for presidential candidate Ollanta Humala of the Gana Perú alliance (51.4% of valid votes) over Keiko Fujimori of Fuerza 2011 (48.5%).[40] Congress is currently composed of Gana Perú (47 seats), Fuerza 2011 (37 seats), Alianza Parlamentaria (20 seats), Alianza por el Gran Cambio (12 seats), Solidaridad Nacional (8 seats) and Concertación Parlamentaria (6 seats).[41] Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.[42] Currently, Peru disputes its maritime limits with Chile in the Pacific Ocean.[43] Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.[44] The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.[45] Regions Main article: Administrative divisions of Peru Ama zonas Ancash Apurímac Arequipa Ayacucho Caja marca Cusco Huánuco Huanca velica Ica Junín La Libertad Lamba yeque Lima Lima Province Callao Loreto Madre de Dios Moquegua Pasco Piura Puno Tacna Tumbes San Martín Ucayali info Clickable map of the regions of Peru. Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and council that serve four-year terms.[46] These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.[47] The province of Lima is administered by a city council.[48] Regions: Amazonas Ancash Apurímac Arequipa Ayacucho Cajamarca Callao Cuzco Huancavelica Huánuco Ica Junín La Libertad Lambayeque Lima Loreto Madre de Dios Moquegua Pasco Piura Puno San Martín Tacna Tumbes Ucayali Province: Lima Geography Main article: Geography of Peru Peru covers 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi). It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes Mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.[49] The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region.[50] Left: Alpamayo, a mountain peak in the Huascarán National Park. Right: Manú National Park, a biosphere reserve, depicts the Peruvian rainforest. Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.[51] Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.[52] Peru, unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt Current cause great climatic diversity within the country. The costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.[53] In the sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.[54] The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.[55] Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003; 5,855 of them endemic.[56] Economy Main article: Economy of Peru Peru is a developing country with a market-oriented economy; its 2010 per capita income is estimated by the IMF at US$5,195[2] and it has a high Human Development Index score of 0.723 based on 2010 data.[57] Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.[58] Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.[59] According to 2010 data, 31.3% of its total population is poor, including 9.8% that is extremely poor.[60] Left: The seaport of Callao is the main outlet for Peruvian exports. Right: Buildings in the financial district of San Isidro, Lima. Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.[61] Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.[62] Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[63] Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).[64] Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.[65] Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on April 12, 2006.[66] Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.[67] Demographics Left: Afro-Peruvian association football athlete Jefferson Farfán. Centre: Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa. Right: Former Miss World model María Julia Mantilla. Main article: Demographics of Peru Peru is a multiethnic country formed by different groups over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before the Spanish Conquest of the 16th century; according to historian David N. Cook their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases.[68] Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and indigenous peoples. Gradual European immigration from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain followed independence.[69] Chinese arrived in the 1850s, replacing slave workers, and have since greatly influenced Peruvian society.[70] There are 15 uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru.[71] With about 29.5 million inhabitants, Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America.[72] Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.[73] As of 2007, 75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.[74] Major cities include Lima (home to over 8 million people), Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.[75] Spanish, the first language of 83.9% of Peruvians aged five and older in 2007, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most common of which is Quechua, spoken by 13.2% of the population. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 2.7% and 0.1% of Peruvians, respectively.[76] In the 2007 census, 81.3% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 12.5% as Evangelical, 3.3% as of other denominations, and 2.9% as non-religious.[77] Literacy was estimated at 92.9% in 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).[78] Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.[79] Culture Main article: Culture of Peru Anonymous Cuzco School painting, 18th century Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,[80] though it has also been influenced by various African, Asian, and European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.[81] During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative.[82] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.[83] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.[84] Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.[85] The early 20th century's Indigenismo movement was led by such writers as Ciro Alegría[86] and José María Arguedas.[87] César Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.[88] Ceviche is a lime marinated seafood dish. Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from African, Arab, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese cooking.[89] Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.[90] Peru's diversity of ingredients and cooking techniques is receiving worldwide acclaim.[91] Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots.[92] In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.[93] Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.[94] African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument.[95] Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, and huayno.[96] See also Geography portal Latin America portal South America portal Peru portal Outline of Peru Index of Peru-related articles v d e  Peru topics History Timeline (Ancient cultures · Inca Empire · Spanish conquest · Viceroyalty · War of Independence · Guano Era · War of the Pacific · Colombia–Peru War · Ecuadorian–Peruvian war · Internal conflict)  · Demographic · Economic Geography Cities · Earthquakes · Wildlife · Flora · Mountains · Natural regions · Protected areas · Rivers Government Constitution · Electoral system · Foreign relations · Law · Law enforcement · Military · Nationality law · Regions and provinces Politics Elections  · Political parties (Alliance for the Future · APRA · National Unity · Possible Peru · Peruvian Nationalist Party · Popular Action · Union for Peru) Economy Agriculture · Central Bank · Communications · Companies · Currency · Electricity · Stock Exchange · Tourism · Transport · Water supply and sanitation Culture Architecture · Art · Cinema · Cuisine · Demographics · Education · Languages · Literature · Media · Music · Public holidays · Religion · Sport Other topics List of Peruvians · Human rights · International rankings · Llama · Machu Picchu · National symbols Index • Portal Notes ^ CIA, World Factbook (Expand "people" tab) ^ a b c d e "Peru". International Monetary Fund. http://http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=36&pr.y=1&sy=2011&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=293&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=. Retrieved May 6, 2011.  ^ "Gini Index". World Bank. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/. Retrieved 2 March 2011.  ^ "Human Development Report 2010". United Nations. 2010. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved November 5, 2010.  ^ Quechua name used by government of Peru is Perú (see Quechua language version of Peru Parliament website and Quechua language version of Peru Constitution [1]), but common Quechua name is Piruw ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 83. ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 84. ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 86. ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 87. ^ Tom Dillehay et al, "The first settlers", p. 20. ^ Jonathan Haas et al, "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru", p. 1021. ^ Terence D'Altroy, The Incas, pp. 2–3. ^ Enrique Mayer, The articulated peasant, pp. 47–68. ^ Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias, vol. II, pp. 12–13. ^ Peter Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain, p. 181. ^ Margarita Suárez, Desafíos transatlánticos, pp. 252–253. ^ Kenneth Andrien, Crisis and decline, pp. 200–202. ^ Mark Burkholder, From impotence to authority, pp. 83–87. ^ Scarlett O'Phelan, Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru, p. 276. ^ Timothy Anna, The fall of the royal government in Peru, pp. 237–238. ^ Charles Walker, Smoldering ashes, pp. 124–125. ^ Paul Gootenberg, Between silver and guano, p. 12. ^ Paul Gootenberg, Imagining development, pp. 5–6. ^ Paul Gootenberg, Imagining development, p. 9. ^ Ulrich Mücke, Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru, pp. 193–194. ^ Peter Klarén, Peru, pp. 262–276. ^ David Palmer, Peru: the authoritarian tradition, p. 93. ^ George Philip, The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals, pp. 163–165. ^ Daniel Schydlowsky and Juan Julio Wicht, "Anatomy of an economic failure", pp. 106–107. ^ Peter Klarén, Peru, pp. 406–407. ^ BBC News, Fujimori: Decline and fall. Retrieved July 21, 2007. ^ The Economist, Peru. Retrieved July 18, 2007. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 112. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 122. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 90. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Articles N° 107–108. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Articles N° 146. ^ Jeffrey Clark, Building on quicksand. Retrieved July 24, 2007. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 31. ^ (Spanish) Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales, Elecciones Generales 2011 Segunda Elección Presidencial. Retrieved July 28, 2011. ^ (Spanish) Congreso de la República del Perú, Grupos Parlamentarios. Retrieved August 27, 2011. ^ Ronald Bruce St John, The foreign policy of Peru, pp. 223–224. ^ BBC News, Peru–Chile border row escalates. Retrieved May 16, 2007. ^ Ministerio de Defensa, Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional, p. 90. ^ Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar, Articles N° 29, 42 and 45. ^ Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article N° 11. ^ Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article N° 10. ^ Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article N° 66. ^ AndesHandbook, Huascarán. Retrieved August 12, 2007. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, p. 16. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, p. 31. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005, p. 21. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 24–25. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 25–26. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 26–27. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005, p. 50. ^ United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2010PDFRetrieved November 5, 2010. ^ Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, p. 4. ^ Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, p. 321. ^ In