re'publika slo've?nija]) is a Slavic nation state,[11] situated in South-Central Europe,[11][Note 1] at the crossroad of main European cultural and trade routes.[16][17] It borders Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Croatia to the south and southeast, and Hungary to the northeast.[18] It covers 20,273 square kilometres (7,827 sq mi) and has a population of 2.05 million.[19] It is a parliamentary republic,[20] member of the European Union and NATO.[21] Relative to its geography, history, economy, culture, and language, it is a very diverse country distinguished by a transitional character.[22] It is characterised by a high economic and social level.[23] Its capital and largest city is Ljubljana.[24] The territory of Slovenia is mainly hilly or mountainous[25] and has an exceptionally high landscape[26] and biological[27][28] diversity and a mosaic structure, which are a result of natural attributes and the long-lasting presence of humans.[29] Four major European geographic units interweave here: the Alps, the Dinaric Alps, the Mediterranean, with a small portion of coastline along the Adriatic Sea, and the Pannonian Plain.[25][30] The climate is temperate and significantly influenced by the variety of territory, with a strong interaction of the continental climate, the sub-Mediterranean climate and Alpine climate across most of the country.[31] The country is one of the water-richest in Europe,[32] with a dense river network, a rich aquifer system, and significant karstic underground watercourses.[33] Over half of the territory is covered by forest.[34] The settlement of Slovenia is dispersed and uneven.[35] The Slavic, Germanic, Romance and Uralic linguistic and cultural groups meet here.[36][37][38] The dominant population is Slovene, although it has almost never been homogenous.[39] Slovene is the only official language throughout the country, whereas Italian and Hungarian are regional minority languages. Slovenia is a largely secularised country,[40] but its culture and identity have been significantly influenced by Roman Catholicism as well as Lutheranism.[41] The economy of Slovenia is small, open, export-oriented[42] and subsequently, heavily influenced by international circumstances.[43] It has been severely hurt by the European economic crisis, started in late 2000s.[44] The main economic field is services, followed by industry and construction.[45] Many Slovenians reach top sport successes, particularly in winter sports, water sports, mountaineering, and endurance sports.[46] Historically, the current territory of Slovenia was part of many different state formations, including the Roman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, followed by the Habsburg Monarchy. In 1918, the Slovenes exercised self-determination for the first time by co-founding the internationally unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, which merged into Yugoslavia. During World War II, Slovenia was occupied and annexed by Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Croatia,[47] only to emerge afterwards as a founding member of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In June 1991, after the introduction of multi-party representative democracy, Slovenia became an independent country.[2] In 2004, it entered NATO and the European Union, in 2007 became the first former Communist country to join the Eurozone,[48] and in 2010 joined the OECD, a global association of high-income developed countries.[49] Contents 1 History 1.1 Prehistory to Slavic settlement 1.2 The Middle Ages to Early Modern Period 1.3 Reformation and emergence of national identity 1.4 World War I 1.5 In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia 1.6 Fascist Italianization of Littoral Slovenes and resistance 1.7 World War II and aftermath 1.8 The socialist period 1.9 Democracy and independence 2 Politics 2.1 Judiciary 2.2 Military 3 Administrative divisions 4 Geography 4.1 Geology 4.2 Natural regions 4.3 Climate 4.4 Waters 4.5 Biodiversity 5 Economy 5.1 Energetics 5.2 Tourism 5.3 Transport 6 Demographics 6.1 Urbanization 6.2 Languages 6.2.1 Languages of the minorities and ex-Yugoslav languages 6.3 Religion 6.4 Immigration 7 Education 8 Culture 8.1 Cuisine 9 Sport 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links 14.1 Government 14.2 Travel 14.3 News History The examples and perspective in this section might have an extensive bias or disproportional coverage towards Slovene nation. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2009) Main article: History of Slovenia Prehistory to Slavic settlement Entrance to Potok Cave in the Eastern Karavanke, where the remains of a human residence dated to the Aurignacian (40,000 to 30,000 BP) were found by Srecko Brodar in the 1920s and 1930s. This marks the beginning of Paleolithic research in Slovenia.[50] Slovene territory was inhabited in prehistoric times and there is evidence of human habitation around 250,000 years ago. A pierced cave bear bone, probably the oldest known musical instrument in the world, has been discovered in Divje Babe cave near Cerkno, dating from the Würm glacial age when the area was inhabited by Neanderthals,[51] and the oldest needle, pierced bones, bone points and other artifacts in Potok Cave (Slovene: Potocka zijalka), a high-elevation Aurignacian site, belonging to the Cro-Magnon (modern human).[52] In the Ljubljana Marshes, the remains of pile dwellings, which existed in the region for over 4,500 years, from 5000 to 500 BC, now protected as UNESCO World Heritage Site, have been discovered,[53] as well as the oldest wooden wheel in the world, dated to between 5,100 and 5,350 years ago.[54] In the transition period between the Bronze age to the Iron age, the Urnfield culture flourished. Archeological remains dating from the Hallstatt period have been found particularly in the southeastern Slovenia, among them a number of situlas in Novo Mesto, the "Town of Situlas".[55] In the Iron Age, present-day Slovenia was inhabited by Illyrian and Celtic tribes until the 1st century BC, when the Romans conquered the region establishing the provinces of Pannonia and Noricum. What is now western Slovenia was included directly under Roman Italia as part of the X region Venetia et Histria. The Romans established posts at Emona (Ljubljana), Poetovio (Ptuj) and Celeia (Celje) and constructed trade and military roads that ran across Slovene territory from Italy to Pannonia. In the 5th and 6th centuries, the area was exposed to invasions by the Huns and Germanic tribes during their incursions into Italy. After the departure of the last Germanic tribe – the Lombards – to Italy in 568, the Slavs from the East began to dominate the area with aid from Avars. After the successful resistance against the nomadic Asian Avar rule (from 623 to 626), the Slavic people united with King Samo’s tribal confederation. The confederation fell apart in 658 and the Slavic people, located in present-day Carinthia, formed the independent duchy of Carantania.[56]. Other parts of Slovenia were again ruled by Avars before Charlemagne's victory over them in 803. The Middle Ages to Early Modern Period The installation of the Dukes in Carinthia, carried out in an ancient ritual in Slovene until 1414. In the mid-8th century, Carantania became a vassal duchy under the rule of the Bavarians, who began spreading Christianity. Three decades later, the Carantanians were incorporated, together with the Bavarians, into the Carolingian Empire. During the same period Carniola, too, came under the Franks, and was Christianized from Aquileia. Following the anti-Frankish rebellion of Ljudevit Posavski at the beginning of the 9th century, the Franks removed the Carantanian princes, replacing them with their own border dukes. Consequently, the Frankish feudal system reached the Slovene territory. The Freising Manuscripts, dating from the 10th century, most probably written in upper Carinthia, are the oldest surviving documents in Slovene. The Magyar invasion of the Pannonian Plain in the late 9th century effectively isolated the Slovene-inhabited territory from western Slavs. Thus, the Slavs of Carantania and of Carniola began developing into an independent Slovene ethnic group. After the victory of Emperor Otto I over the Magyars in 955, Slovene territory was divided into a number of border regions of the Holy Roman Empire. Carantania, being the most important, was elevated into the Duchy of Carinthia in 976. In the late Middle Ages the historic provinces of Carniola, Styria, Carinthia, Gorizia, Trieste and Istria developed from the border regions and incorporated into the medieval German state. The consolidation and formation of these historical lands took place in a long period between the 11th and 14th century being led by a number of important feudal families such as the Dukes of Spannheim, the Counts of Gorizia, the Counts of Celje and finally the House of Habsburg. In a parallel process, an intensive German colonization significantly diminished the extent of Slovene-speaking areas; by the 15th century, the Slovene ethnic territory was reduced to its present size.[57] In the 14th century, most of the territory of Slovenia was taken over by the Habsburgs. The counts of Celje, a feudal family from this area who in 1436 acquired the title of state princes, were their powerful competitors for some time. This large dynasty, important at a European political level, had its seat in Slovene territory but died out in 1456. Its numerous large estates subsequently became the property of the Habsburgs, who retained control of the area right up until the beginning of the 20th century. At the end of the Middle Ages, the Slovene Lands suffered a serious economic and demographic setback because of the Turkish raids. In 1515, a peasant revolt spread across nearly the whole Slovene territory and in 1572-3 the Croatian-Slovenian peasant revolt wrought havoc throughout the wider region. Uprisings, which often met with bloody defeats, continued throughout the 17th century.[57] Reformation and emergence of national identity Protestant preacher Primož Trubar, author of the first book in Slovene The first mentions of a common Slovene ethnic identity, transcending regional boundaries, date from the 16th century,[58] when the Protestant Reformation spread throughout the Slovene Lands. During this period, the first books in Slovene were written by the Protestant preacher Primož Trubar and his followers, establishing the base for the development of standard Slovene. In the second half of the 16th century, numerous books were printed in Slovene, including an integral translation of the Bible by Jurij Dalmatin. At the beginning of the 17th century, Protestantism was suppressed by the Habsburg-sponsored Counter Reformation, which introduced the new aesthetics of Baroque culture. The Enlightenment in the Habsburg monarchy brought significant social and cultural progress to the Slovene people. It hastened economic development and facilitated the appearance of a middle class. Under the reign of Maria Theresa and Emperor Joseph II (1765–1790) many reforms were undertaken in the administration and society, including land reforms, the modernization of the Church and compulsory primary education in Slovene (1774). The start of cultural-linguistic activities by Slovene intellectuals of the time brought about a national revival and the birth of the Slovene nation in the modern sense of the word. Before the Napoleonic Wars, some secular literature in Slovene emerged. During the same period, the first history of the Slovene Lands as an ethnic unity was written by Anton Tomaž Linhart, while Jernej Kopitar compiled the first comprehensive grammar of Slovene.[57] Peter Kozler's map of the Slovene Lands, designed during the Spring of Nations in 1848, became the symbol of the quest for a United Slovenia. Between 1809 and 1813, Slovenia was part of the Illyrian Provinces, an autonomous province of the Napoleonic French Empire, with Ljubljana as the capital. Although the French rule was short-lived, it significantly contributed to the raise of national consciousness and political awareness of the Slovenes. After the fall of Napoleon, all Slovene Lands were once again included in the Austrian Empire. Gradually, a distinct Slovene national consciousness developed, and the quest for a political unification of all Slovenes became widespread. In the 1820s and 1840s, the interest in Slovene language and folklore grew enormously, with numerous philologists advancing the first steps towards a standardization of the language. Illyrian movement, Pan-Slavic and Austro-Slavic ideas gained importance. However, the intellectual circle around the philologist Matija Cop and the Romantic poet France Prešeren was influential in affirming the idea of Slovene linguistic and cultural individuality, refusing the idea of merging the Slovenes into a wider Slavic nation. In 1840s, the Slovene national movement developed far beyond literary expression.[59] In 1848, the first Slovene national political program, called United Slovenia (Zedinjena Slovenija), was written in the context of the Spring of Nations movement within the Austrian Empire.[60] It demanded a unification of all Slovene-speaking territories in an autonomous kingdom, named Slovenija,[60] within the empire and an official status for the Slovene language.[61] Although the project failed,[60] it served as an important platform of Slovene political activity in the following decades,[62] particularly in at the turn of 1860s and 1870s, when mass Slovene rallies, named tabori, were organised.[63] The conflict between Slovene and German nationalists deepened.[64] In 1866, some Slovenes were left to Italy,[64] and in 1867, some remained in the Hungarian part of the Austria-Hungary. This significantly affected the nation and led to further radicalisation of the Slovene national movement.[65] In 1890s, the first Slovene political parties were established. All of them were loyal to Austria, but they were also espousing a common South Slavic cause.[64] After 1848, Slovenes, who were still mostly farmers, enjoyed for the first time personal freedom. This brought economic insecurity, leading many to urban centres.[64] The construction of railroads began and industry developed considerably.[citation needed] After 1880, due to economic circumstances, hundreds of thousands of Slovenes emigrated to other countries,[64] mostly to the United States, but also to South America, Germany, Egypt, and to larger cities in the Austria-Hungary, especially Zagreb and Vienna. It has been calculated that around 300,000 Slovenes or one in six emigrated between 1880 and 1910. Despite this, the Slovene population increased significantly[64] and became as socially differentiated as in other European nations.[citation needed] Literacy was exceptionally high, at 80 to 90 percent.[64] World War I See also: Italian Campaign (World War I), Battles of the Isonzo, Treaty of London (1915), and Corfu Declaration The village of Rence in the lower Vipava Valley, severely damaged during the Battles of the Isonzo World War I resulted in heavy casualties for Slovenes, particularly on the twelve Battles of the Isonzo, which took place in what is nowadays Slovenia's western border area. Hundreds of thousands of Slovene conscripts were drafted in the Austro-Hungarian Army, and over 30,000 of them lost their lives. Hundreds of thousands of Slovenes from Gorizia and Gradisca were resettled in refugee camps in Italy and Austria. While the refugees in Austria received a decent treatment, the Slovene refugees in Italian camps were treated as state enemies, and several thousands died of malnutrition and diseases between 1915 and 1918.[66] Entire areas of the Slovenian Littoral were destroyed. In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia See also: Creation of Yugoslavia, Carinthian Plebiscite, and Rudolf Maister The proclamation of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs at Congress Square in Ljubljana on 20 October 1918 The Slovene People's Party launched a movement for self-determination, demanding the creation of a semi-independent South Slavic state under Habsburg rule. The proposal was picked up by most Slovene parties, and a mass mobilization of Slovene civil society, known as the Declaration Movement, followed.[67] This proposal was rejected by the Austrian political elites, but following the dissolution of Austro-Hungarian Empire in the aftermath of the First World War, a National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs took power in Zagreb on 6 October 1918. On 29 October independence was declared by a national gathering in Ljubljana, and by the Croatian parliament, declaring the establishment of the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. On 1 December 1918 the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs merged with Serbia, becoming part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, itself being renamed in 1929 to Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The main territory of Slovenia, being the most industrialized and westernized among others less developed parts of Yugoslavia became the main center of industrial production: in comparison to Serbia, for example, in Slovenia the industrial production was four times greater and even twenty-two times greater than in Yugoslav Macedonia. The interwar period brought a further industrialization in Slovenia, with a rapid economic growth in the 1920s followed by a relatively successful economic adjustment to the 1929 economic crisis. Following a plebiscite in October 1920, Slovene-speaking southern Carinthia was ceded to Austria. With the Treaty of Trianon, on the other hand, Kingdom of Yugoslavia was awarded the Slovene-inhabited Prekmurje region, formerly part of Austro-Hungary, as well. Slovenes whose territory fell under the rule of neighboring states Italy, Austria and Hungary, were subjected to policies of forced assimilation, and in case of Fascist Italy, violent Fascist Italianization. Fascist Italianization of Littoral Slovenes and resistance See also: Treaty of Rapallo (1920), Julian March, and TIGR The Narodni dom, the Community Hall of ethnic Slovenes in Trieste, burned down by the Fascist squads in June 1920, became the symbol of Fascist Italianization. The Slovenes living under territories annexed to Italy in 1920 (Slovenian Littoral) lacked any minorirty protection under international or domestic law.[68] Clashes between the local Slovene population on one side and the Italian authorities and Fascist squads on the other started already in 1920, culminating with the burning of the Narodni dom, the Slovenian National Hall of Trieste. After the Fascist takeover in 1922, a policy of violent Fascist Italianization followed, seeking to eradicate the Slovene middle class and the intelligentsia. Education in Slovene was abolished in 1923, Slovene surnames and personal names were Italianized between 1926 and 1932. By 1927, all Slovene associations were banned and all public use of Slovene was prohibited. Police violence was carried out against opponents of the Fascist regime. By the mid 1930s, around 70.000 Slovenes had fled the region, mostly to Yugoslavia and South America. After the complete destruction of all Slovene minority organizations in Italy, the militant anti-fascist organizations TIGR was formed in 1927 in order to fight Fascist violence. Acts of anti-Fascist guerrilla continued throughout the late 1920s and 1930s. World War II and aftermath Main article: World War II in the Slovene Lands The Triglav cap was the most characteristic part of the Slovene Partisans uniform On 6 April 1941, Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis Powers. Slovenia was divide