Soviet Tajikistan Main article: Tajik SSR In 1924, the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was created as a part of Uzbekistan, but in 1929 the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajik SSR) was made a separate constituent republic. The predominantly ethnic Tajik cities of Samarkand and Bukhara remained in the Uzbek SSR. In terms of living conditions, education and industry Tajikistan was somewhat behind the other Soviet Republics.[citation needed] By the late 1980s Tajik nationalists were calling for increased rights. Real disturbances did not occur within the republic until 1990. The following year, the Soviet Union collapsed, and Tajikistan declared its independence. [edit] Post-Independence See also: Civil war in Tajikistan The nation almost immediately fell into a civil war that involved various factions fighting one another; these factions were often distinguished by clan loyalties. The non-Muslim population, particularly Russians and Jews, fled the country during this time because of persecution, increased poverty and better economic opportunities in the West or in other former Soviet republics. Emomali Rahmonov came to power in 1992, and continues to rule to this day. However, he has been accused of ethnic cleansing against other ethnicities and groups during the Civil war in Tajikistan[citation needed]. In 1997, a ceasefire was reached between Rahmonov and opposition parties (United Tajik Opposition). Peaceful elections were held in 1999, but they were reported by the opposition as unfair, and Rahmonov was re-elected by almost unanimous vote. Russian troops were stationed in southern Tajikistan, in order to guard the border with Afghanistan, until summer 2005. Since the September 11, 2001, attacks, American, Indian and French troops have also been stationed in the country. In 2008, the harshest winter in a quarter century caused financial losses of $850 million. Russia pledged $1 billion in aid.[8] Saudi Arabia sent about 10 planes carrying 80 tons of relief and emergency supplies in February and another 11 tons in March.[9] [edit] Politics Main article: Politics of Tajikistan See also: Human rights in Tajikistan Almost immediately after independence, Tajikistan was plunged into a civil war that saw various factions, allegedly backed by Russia and Iran, fighting one another. All but 25,000 of the more than 400,000 ethnic Russians, who were mostly employed in industry, fled to Russia. By 1997, the war had cooled down, and a central government began to take form, with peaceful elections in 1999. Emomali Rahmon "Longtime observers of Tajikistan often characterize the country as profoundly averse to risk and skeptical of promises of reform, a political passivity they trace to the country’s ruinous civil war," Ilan Greenberg wrote in a news article in The New York Times just before the country's November 2006 presidential election.[1] Tajikistan is officially a republic, and holds elections for the President and Parliament. The latest elections occurred in 2005, and as all previous elections, international observers believe them to have been corrupt, arousing many accusations from opposition parties that President Emomali Rahmon manipulates the election process. The November 6, 2006, election was boycotted by "mainline" opposition parties, including the 23,000-member Islamist Islamic Renaissance Party. Four remaining opponents "all but endorsed the incumbent", Rakhmon.[1] After November 2006 presidential elections, it is widely speculated that Rahmon has secured his seat for at least another two terms, which will allow him rule till 2020.[citation needed] Tajikistan to this date is one of the few countries in Central Asia to have included an active opposition in its government. In the Parliament, opposition groups have often clashed with the ruling party, but this has not led to great instability. On October 11, 2007, the Assembly of the Council Commission of the Ministry of Culture issued a decision to ban Jehovah’s Witnesses in the Republic of Tajikistan. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and after the breakup of the Soviet Union, the activity of Jehovah’s Witnesses was legally recognized by many post-Soviet republics. Since that time, however, this is the first Soviet republic to ban the activity of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Recently Tajikistan also gave Iran its support in the membership bid to join the SCO, after a meeting with Tajik President and Iranian foreign minister.[10] [edit] Administrative divisions Main article: Provinces of Tajikistan Tajikistan consists of 4 administrative divisions. These are the provinces (viloyat) of Sughd and Khatlon, the autonomous province of Gorno-Badakhshan (abbreviated as GBAO), and the Region of Republican Subordination (RRP – Raiony Respublikanskogo Podchineniya in Russian; formerly known as Karotegin Province). Each region consists of several districts (called "raion" or "nohiya"). Division ISO 3166-2 Capital Area (km˛) Pop (2006) Sughd TJ-SU Khujand 25,400 2,060,900 Region of Republican Subordination TJ-RR Dushanbe 28,600 1,531,300 Khatlon TJ-KT Qurghonteppa 24,800 2,463,300 Gorno-Badakhshan TJ-BG Khorugh 64,200 218,400 Source: Population and area from State Statistical Committee of Tajikistan [11] [edit] Geography Main article: Geography of Tajikistan Satellite photograph of Tajikistan Mountains of Tajikistan Tajikistan is landlocked, and is the smallest nation in Central Asia by area. It is covered by mountains of the Pamir range, and more than fifty percent of the country is over 3,000 meters (approx. 10,000 ft) above sea level. The only major areas of lower land are in the north which is part of the Fergana Valley, and in the southern Kafirnigan and Vakhsh valleys which form the Amu Darya and have much higher rainfall. Dushanbe is located on the southern slopes above the Kafirnigan valley. The Amu Darya and Panj rivers mark the border with Afghanistan, and Tajikistan's mountains are the major source of runoff for the Aral Sea About 1% of the country's area is covered by lakes: Kuli Obanbori Norak Qarokul Shorkul Yashilkul Zorkul Mountain Height Location Independence Peak 7,174 m 23,537 ft     Northern border in the Trans-Alay Range Kyzylart Pass 4,280 m 14,042 ft     Northern border in the Trans-Alay Range Ismoil Somoni Peak (highest) 7,495 m 24,590 ft     North of the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province Avicenna Peak 6,974 m 22,881 ft     North of Ismoil Somoni Peak Peak Korzhenevskaya 7,105 m 23,310 ft     Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province Revolution Peak 6,973 m 22,880 ft     Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province Akademiya Nauk Range 6,785 m 22,260 ft     Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province Concord Peak 5,469 m 17,943 ft     Southern border in the northern ridge of the Karakoram Range Qullai Karl Marks 6,726 m 22,067 ft     Southern border in the northern ridge of the Karakoram Range Qullai Mayakovskiy 6,096 m 20,000 ft     Along the border to Afghanistan. [edit] Economy Main articles: Economy of Tajikistan and Agriculture in Tajikistan Tajikistan was the poorest country in Central Asia as well in the former Soviet Union following a civil war after it became independent in 1991. With foreign revenue precariously dependent upon exports of cotton and aluminium, the economy is highly vulnerable to external shocks. In FY 2000, international assistance remained an essential source of support for rehabilitation programs that reintegrated former civil war combatants into the civilian economy, thus helping keep the peace. International assistance also was necessary to address the second year of severe drought that resulted in a continued shortfall of food production. On August 21, 2001, the Red Cross announced that a famine was striking Tajikistan, and called for international aid for Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Tajikistan's economy grew substantially after the war. The GDP of Tajikistan expanded at an average rate of 9.6% over the period of 2000-2004 according to the World Bank data. This improved Tajikistan's position among other Central Asian countries (namely Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), which seem to have degraded economically ever since.[12] Tajikistan is an active member of the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO). A boy selling dried fruit at a local market The recently completed Anzab tunnel which connects the previously hard to access Northern part of the country to the capital Dushanbe has been labeled as part of the new Silk Road. It is part of a road under construction that will connect Tajikistan to Iran and the Persian Gulf through Afghanistan. A new bridge between Afghanistan and Tajikistan has been built which will help the country have access to trade lines with South Asia. The bridge was built by the United States.[13] The primary sources of income in Tajikistan are aluminium production, cotton growing and remmittances from migrant workers.[14] Aluminium industry is represented by the state-owned Talco - the biggest aluminium plant in Central Asia and one of the biggest in the world.[15] Tajikistan has great hydropower potential, and has focused on attracting investment for projects for internal use and electricity exports. Tajikistan is home to the hydroelectric power station Nurek with the highest dam in the world.[16] The latest development is the Russia's RAO UES energy giant working on Sangtuda-1 hydroelectric power station (670 megawatts (MW) capacity) commenced operations on 18 January 2008.[17][18] Other projects at the development stage include Sangduta-2 by Iran, Zerafshan by Chinese SinoHydro and Rogun power plant with a projected dam height of 335 metres (1,099 ft) to be built by Russia's UES.[19][20][21] Other energy resources include sizable coal deposits and smaller reserves of natural gas and petroleum. A bazaar in Panjakent Foreign remittance flows from Tajik migrant workers abroad, mainly in Russia, has become by far the main source of income for millions of Tajikistan's people and represents additional 36.2% of country's GDP directly reaching the poverty-stricken population.[22] Migration from Tajikistan and the consequent remittances have been unprecedented in their magnitude and economic impact. Tajikistan has achieved transition from a planned to a market economy without substantial and protracted recourse to aid (of which it by now receives only negligible amounts), and by purely market-based means, simply by exporting its main commodity of comparative advantage — cheap labor.[23] The World Bank Tajikistan Policy Note 2006 concludes that remittances have played an important role as one of the drivers of Tajikistan's robust economic growth during the past several years, have increased incomes, and as a result helped significantly reduce poverty.[24] Drug trafficking is the major illegal source of income in Tajikistan as it is an important transit country for Afghan narcotics bound for Russian and, to a lesser extent, Western European markets; some opium poppy is also raised locally for the domestic market.[25] However with the increasing assistance from international organizations, such as UNODC, and cooperation with the US, Russian, EU and Afghan authorities a level of progress on fight against illegal drug-trafficking is being achieved.[26] Tajikistan holds the third place in the world for heroin and raw opium confiscations (1216.3 kg of heroine and 267.8 kg of raw opium in the first half of 2006.[27][28]) Drug money corrupts the country's government; according to some experts the well-known personalities that fought on both sides of the civil war and have held the positions in the government after the armistice was signed are now involved in the drug trade.[25] UNODC is working with Tajikistan to strengthen border crossings, provide training, and set up joint interdiction teams. It also helped to establish Tajikistani Drug Control Agency.[29] [edit] Demographics Main article: Demographics of Tajikistan Tajik children Tajikistan has a population of 7,320,716 (July 2006 est.). Tajiks who speak the Tajik language are the main ethnic group, although there is a sizable minority of Uzbeks and a small population of Russians, whose numbers are declining due to emigration. Pamiris of Badakhshan are considered to belong to larger group of Tajiks. Likewise, the official language of Tajikistan is the Tajik language, while Russian is largely spoken in business and for government purposes. Despite its poverty, Tajikistan has a high rate of literacy with an estimated 98% of the population having the ability to read and write. Most of the population follows Sunni Islam, although a sizable number of Shi'a are present as well. Bukharian Jews had lived in Tajikistan since the 2nd century BC, but today only a few hundred remain. There is also a small population of Yaghnobi people who have lived in the mountainous district of Sughd Viloyat for many centuries. The Tajik Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare reported that 104,272 disabled people are registered in Tajikistan (2000). This group of people suffers most from poverty in Tajikistan. The Tajik government and the World Bank considered activities to support this part of the population described in the World Bank's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.[30] [edit] Culture Main article: Culture of Tajikistan See also: Music of Tajikistan, Islam in Tajikistan, Public holidays in Tajikistan, and Cuisine of Tajikistan Statue of Persian poet Rudaki in Panjakent, Tajikistan. Poetry is an important element in the culture of Tajikistan Historically, Tajiks and Persians come from very similar stock, speaking variants of the same language and are related as part of the larger group of Iranian peoples. The Tajik language is the mother tongue of around two-thirds of the citizens of Tajikistan. Ancient towns such as Bukhara, Samarkand, Herat, Balkh and Khiva are no longer part of the country. The main urban centers in today's Tajikistan include Dushanbe (the capital), Khujand, Kulob, Panjakent and Istaravshan. The Pamiri people of Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in the southeast, bordering Afghanistan and China, though considered part of the Tajik ethnicity, nevertheless are distinct linguistically and culturally from most Tajiks. In contrast to the mostly Sunni Muslim residents of the rest of Tajikistan, the Pamiris overwhelmingly follow the Ismaili sect of Islam, and speak a number of Eastern Iranian languages, including Shughni, Rushani, Khufi and Wakhi. Isolated in the highest parts of the Pamir Mountains, they have preserved many ancient cultural traditions and folk arts that have been largely lost elsewhere in the country. The Yaghnobi people live in mountainous areas of northern Tajikistan. The estimated number of Yaghnobis is now about 25,000. Forced migrations in the 20th century decimated their numbers. They speak the Yaghnobi language, which is the only direct modern descendant of the ancient Sogdian language. [edit] Transport Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. (February 2008) Main article: Transportation in Tajikistan [edit] See also 2006 Tajikistan earthquake Agriculture in Tajikistan Central Asian Union Communications in Tajikistan Dushanbe synagogue Foreign relations of Tajikistan Ittihodi Scouthoi Tojikiston List of cities in Tajikistan Military of Tajikistan Transport in Tajikistan Mount Imeon Kingdom of Balhara [edit] References and footnotes Fan Mountains ^ a b c Greenberg, Ilan, "Media Muzzled and Opponents Jailed, Tajikistan Readies for Vote," The New York Times, November 4, 2006 (article dateline November 3, 2006), page A7, New York edition ^ Nirukta II.2. ^ Linguistic Survey of India, Vol X, pp 456ff, 468, 473, 474, 476, 500, 511, 524 etc; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Asia, 1911, pp 801-802, Sir Griersen; India as Known to Panini, 1968, p 49, Dr V. S. Aggarwala; Geographical Data in the Early Puranas, A Critical Study, 1972, p 164, Dr M. R. Singh; Bharata Bhumi aur uske Nivasi, Samvat 1987, pp 297-305, Dr J. C. Vidyalankar; Geographical and Economical Studies in the Mahabharata, Upayana Parva, p 37, Dr Motichandra; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 127-28, 167, 218, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Sindhant Kaumudi Arthaprakashaka, 1966, pp 20-22, Acharya R. R. Pande. ^ Proceedings and Transactions of the ... All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, p 118; Indian Culture, 1934, p 193, Indian Research Institute; Linguistic Survey of India, Vol X, pp 455-56, Dr G. A. Grierson; cf: History and Archeology of India's Contacts with Other Countries from the... , 1976, p 152, Dr Shashi P. Asthana - Social Science; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahabharata: Upayana Parva, 1945, p 39, Dr Moti Chandra - India; Pracina Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, p 128, Dr Jiyalala Kamboja, Dr Satyavrat Sastri - Kamboja (Pakistan). ^ Linguistic Survey of India, X, p. 456, Sir G Grierson; Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, pp 107-108. ^ Dr J. C. Vidyalankara, Proceedings and Transactions of 6th A.I.O. Conference, 1930, p 118; cf: Linguistic Survey of India, Vol X, pp 455-56, Dr G. A. Grierson. ^ See: The Deeds of Harsha: Being a Cultural Study of Ba?a's Harshacharita, 1969, p 199, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala; Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, p 118, Dr J. C. Vidyalankara; Pracina Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, Dr Jiyalala Kamboja, Dr Satyavrat Sastri - Kamboja (Pakistan). ^ Tajikistan loses $850 million from cold winter. Trading Markets.com ^ Tenth Saudi relief plane leaves for Tajikistan. Saudi Embassy ^ http://www.presstv.ir/detail.aspx?id=48781&sectionid=351020101 ^ Tajikistan: 15 Years of State Independence, Statistical Yearbook, Dushanbe, 2006, in Russian ^ BBC's Guide to Central Asia. BBC News. Retrieved on 2006-11-01. ^ US Army Corps of Engineer, Afghanistan-Tajikistan Bridge. US Army Corps of Engineer. Retrieved on 2008-03-08. ^ Background Note: Tajikistan. US Department of State, Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs (December 2007). Retrieved on 2008-03-08. ^ ???????? ??-????????? (Tajikistani Aluminium) (Russian). "??????? ?????????" (Ekspert Kazakhstan) #23 (2004-12-06). Retrieved on 2008-03-08. ^ Highest Dams (World and U.S.). ICOLD World Register of Dams (1998). Retrieved on 2008-03-08. ^ ?????? ??????? ????????????? ??? ? ???????????? ????? ???????? 18 ?????? (First stage of the Sangtuda HPS launched on 18 January) (Russian). Vesti (2007-12-25). Retrieved on 2008-03-08. ^ Sangtuda-1 HPS launched on January 18, 2008. Today Energy (2008-01-05). Retrieved on 2008-03-08. ^ Iran participates in power plant project in Tajikistan. IRNA (2007-04-24). Retrieved on 2008-03-08. ^ Chinese To Build Tajik Hydroelectric Plant. Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty (2007-01-18). Retrieved on 2008-03-08. ^ ??? «??? ??????» ???????? «????????? ???» ? ???????????? (RAO UES to construct Rogun HPS in Tajikistan) (Russian). EnergyLand.info (2007-09-14). Retrieved on 2008-03-08. ^ Dilip Ratha, Sanket Mohapatra, K. M. Vijayalakshmi, Zhimei Xu (2007-11-29). Remittance Trends 2007. Migration and Development Brief 3 (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved on 2008-03-08. ^ Alexei Kireyev (January 2006). The Macroeconomics of Remittances: The Case of Tajikistan. IMF Working Paper WP/06/2 (PDF). IMF. Retrieved on 2008-03-08. ^ Tajikistan Policy Note. Poverty Reduction a