Arab rule. Extensive irrigation installations were constructed to supply towns with water and promote agriculture (especially olive production)[8][9]. This prosperity permitted luxurious court life and was marked by the construction of new Palace cities such as al-Abassiya (809) and Raqadda (877)[8]. Successive Muslim dynasties ruled Tunisia (Ifriqiya at the time) with occasional instabilities caused mainly by Berber rebellions[citation needed]; of these reigns we can cite the Aghlabids (800-900) and Fatimids (909-972). After conquering Cairo, Fatimids abandoned North Africa to the local Zirids (Tunisia and parts of Eastern Algeria, 972-1148) and Hammadid (Central and eastern Algeria, 1015-1152)[10]. North Africa was submerged by their quarrels; political instability was connected to the decline of Tunisian trade and agriculture[8][11][12]. In addition the invasion of Tunisia by Banu Hilal, a warlike Arab Bedouin tribes encouraged by Fatimids of Egypt to seize North Africa, sent the region's urban and economic life into further decline[10]. The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun wrote that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert[11][13]. The coasts were held briefly by the Normans of Sicily in the 12th century and the following Arab reconquest made the last Christians in Tunisia disappear. In 1159, Tunisia was conquered by the Almohad caliphs. They were succeeded by the Berber Hafsids (c.1230– 1574), under whom Tunisia prospered. In the late 16th century the coast became a pirate stronghold (see: Barbary States). The Ottoman Rule In the last years of the Hafsids, Spain seized many of the coastal cities, but these were recovered by the Ottoman Empire. Under its Turkish governors, the Beys, Tunisia attained virtual independence. The Hussein dynasty of Beys, established in 1705, lasted until 1957. From 1881 - 1956 the country was under French colonization. European settlements in the country were actively encouraged; the number of French colonists grew from 34,000 in 1906 to 144,000 in 1945. In 1910 there were 105,000 Italians in Tunisia.[14] World War II Main article: Tunisia Campaign In 1942– 1943, Tunisia was the scene of the first major operations by the Allied Forces (the British Empire and the United States) against the Axis Powers (Italy and Germany) during World War II. The main body of the British army, advancing from their victory in Battle of el-Alamein under the command of British Field Marshal Montgomery, pushed into Tunisia from the south. The US and other allies, following their invasions of Algeria and Morocco in Operation Torch, invaded from the west. General Rommel, commander of the Axis forces in North Africa, had hoped to inflict a similar defeat on the allies in Tunisia as German forces did in the Battle of France in 1940. Before the battle for el-Alamein, the allied forces had been forced to retreat toward Egypt. As such the battle for Tunisia was a major test for the allies. They figured out that in order to defeat Axis forces they would have to coordinate their actions and quickly recover from the inevitable setbacks the German-Italian forces would inflict. On February 19, 1943, General Rommel launched an attack on the American forces in the Kasserine Pass region of Western Tunisia, hoping to inflict the kind of demoralizing and alliance-shattering defeat the Germans had dealt to Poland and France. The initial results were a disaster for the United States; the area around the Kasserine Pass is the site of many US war graves from that time. However, the American forces were ultimately able to reverse their retreat. Having known a critical strategy in tank warfare, the Allies broke through the Mareth line on March 20, 1943. The allies subsequently linked up on April 8 and on May 2, 1943 the German-Italian Army in Tunisia surrendered. Thus, the United States, United Kingdom, Free French, and Polish (as well as other forces) were able to win a major battle as an allied army. The battle, though often overshadowed by Stalingrad, represented a major allied victory of World War II largely because it forged the Alliance which would one day liberate Western Europe. Present-day politics This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2009) The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (October 2009) Main article: Politics of Tunisia Tunisia is an authoritarian regime in the guise of a procedural democracy. In the Economist's 2008 Democracy Index Tunisia is classified as an authoritarian regime ranking 141 out of 167 studied countries (worse than The Peoples Republic of China, Egypt, Sierra Leone and Pakistan). On paper it is a republican presidential system characterized by a bicameral parliamentary system, including the Chamber of Representatives and the Chamber of Advisors. Authoritarian president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, previously a military figure, has been in office since 1987, the year he acceded to the executive office of Habib Bourguiba after a team of medical experts judged Bourguiba unfit to exercise the functions of the office. Prior to that moment Ben Ali was Bourguiba's minister. The day of the succession, 7th of November, is celebrated by the state as national holiday, with many public building's and even the national currency and the only private airline and TV station (both owned by the family of the President's wife) carrying the '7 November' logo. In Tunisia, the President is re-elected with enormous majorities every 5-year terms. He appoints a Prime Minister and cabinet, who play a minor role in the execution of policy. Regional governors and local administrators are also appointed by the central government. Largely consultative mayors and municipal councils are elected with most seats going to the President's party. There is a bicameral legislative body, the Chamber of Deputies, which has 182 seats, 20% of which are reserved for opposition parties and the Chamber of Advisors which is composed of representatives of political parties, professional organisations patronised by the President and by personalities appointed by the president of the Republic. Both chambers are composed of more than 20% women, making it one of the rare countries in the Arab world where women enjoy equal rights. Incidentally, it is also the only country in the Arab world where polygamy is forbidden by law. This is part of a provision in the country’s Code of Personal Status which was introduced by the former president Bourguiba in 1956. The judiciary is not independent in constitutional matters and often corrupt in civil cases. The USA government designates Tunisia's Judiciary as only "nominally independent" and notes that all judges are appointed by the Minister of Justice.[15]The military does not play an obvious role in politics letting the ex-army man President run the country. Hundreds of thousands of young men avoid compulsory conscription and live with the constant fear of arrest although it appears that the police only go after them in certain times of the year only (the 'raffle') and often let them go if a sufficient bribe is paid.[16] The regime repeatedly passes laws that make it appear democratic to outsiders. Since 1987, Tunisia has reformed its political system several times. It has formally abolished life presidency and opened up the parliament to opposition parties. In reality, however, all power is monopolized formally by the President and his party - which incidentally is housed in Tunis's tallest tower - and informally by influential families such as the all powerful Trabelsi from the President's wife's side, Leila, a former coiffeuse.[17][18][19][20].There are many signs that the regime has become a kleptocracy with the Trabelsi family controlling much of the business sector in the country. In its January/February 2008 issue, the Foreign Policy Magazine reported that Tunisia's First Lady had been using the 737 Boeing Business Jet[21] of the government to make "unofficial visits" to European Fashion Capitals, such as Milan, Paris and Geneva. The report mentioned that the trips are not on the official travel itinerary. Bloggers tracked the official airplane on spotting webpages as Airliners.net. The first lady has been described as a shopaholic.[22][23]. Recently Tunisia refused a French request for the extradition of two of the President's nephews, from Leila's side, who are accused by the French State prosecutor of having stolen two mega-yachts from a French marina [24]. Rumours have been circulating that Ben Ali's son-in-law Sakher al-Materi (the husband of Zine and Leila's daughter Nessrine) is being primed to eventually take over the country. As of October 2009, he has used family privileges and connections to create a place for himself in the country's economy, and is making his political debut. [2] The President's party, known as the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD) in French, is composed of about 2 million members and more than 6000 representations throughout the country and is largely overlapping with all important state institutions. Although the party was renamed (in Bourguiba’s days it used to be known as the Socialist Destourian Party), its policies are still considered to be largely secular. There are currently eight other small 'political parties' in Tunisia, six of whom are represented in Parliament giving a semblance of legitimacy. Since 2007, all political parties represented in parliament benefit from state subsidies to cover the rising cost of paper and to expand their publication. In July 2008, new constitutional provisions have been voted by the country’s 'parliament'. In reality no-one ever has ever openly launched criticism of the regime and all protest is severely suppressed and does not get reported in the media. Self-censorship is widespread with people fearing the police which is present everywhere and frequently stops and searches individuals and vehicles - often demanding small amounts of bribe money to make up for their meagre salaries. Daily newspapers run eulogistic articles praising the President whose picture graces the first page on a daily basis, often alongside similar articles and pictures of his wife, Leila [25]Large pictures of President Ben Ali and 'spontaneously' erected banners praising him are found on all public buildings and majors streets. The internet is severely restricted, including sites like YouTube. Nevertheless the internet has witnessed a considerable development with more than 1.1 million users and hundreds of internet cafes, known as ‘publinet.’ This is primarily related to the widespread unemployment and lack of democracy and opportunities resulting in millions of bored unemployed graduates.[26]Independent human rights groups, such as Amnesty International, have documented that rights are not respected.[27] 2009 National elections Main article: Tunisian general election, 2009 On October 25, 2009, national elections were held in Tunisia. The election consisted of a presidential one and a parliamentary one. The sitting president Zinedine Ben Ali won a landslide victory, with 89.62%. His main opponent, Mohamed Bouchiha, received 5.01%. The president's party, the CDR, also got the majority of votes for the parliamentary election, 84.59%. The Movement of Socialist Democrats party received 4.63%[citation needed]. The election received criticism from both internal and foreign media [28]. Human Rights Watch has reported that parties and candidates were denied exposure equal to the sitting president, and that the Ettajdid partys weekly publication, Ettarik al-Jadid, was seized by authorities [29]. The four presidential candidates in the 2009 presidential election were the following: Candidate Percentage of votes (%) Zine El Abidine Ben Ali (RCD) 89.62% Mohamed Bouchiha (PPU) 5.01% Ahmed Linoubli (UDU) 3.80% Ahmed Ibrahim (ME) 1.57% Economy Main article: Economy of Tunisia Central Bank of Tunisia. Tunisia has a diverse economy, ranging from agriculture, mining, manufacturing, petroleum products and tourism. In 2008 it had a GDP of $41 billion (official exchange rates), or $82 billion (purchasing power parity) [30]. It also has one of Africa and the Middle East's highest per-capita GDPs (PPP) [31]. The agricultural sector stands for 11,6% of the GDP, industry 25,7%, and services 62,8%. The industrial sector is mainly made up of clothing and footwear manufacturing, production of car parts, and electric machinery. Although Tunisia managed an average 5% growth over the last decade it continues to suffer from a high unemployment especially among youth. GDP growth rate (%) Tunisia was ranked the most competitive economy in Africa and the 40th in the world by the World Economic Forum[32]. Tunisia has managed to attract many international companies such as Airbus[33] and Hewlett-Packard[34]. The European Union remains Tunisia's first trading partner, currently accounting for 72.5% of Tunisian imports and 75% of Tunisian exports. Tunisia is a one of the European Union’s most established trading partners in the Mediterranean region and ranks as the EU’s 30th largest trading partner. Tunisia was the first Mediterranean country to sign an Association Agreement with the European Union, in July 1995, although even before the date of entry into force, Tunisia started dismantling tariffs on bilateral EU trade. Tunisia finalised the tariffs dismantling for industrial products in 2008 and therefore was the 1st Mediterranean country to enter in a free trade area with EU[35]. Tunisia also attracted large Persian Gulf investments (especially from United Arab Emirates) the largest include: Mediterranean gate: a US$ 25 billion project to build a new city in the south of Tunis [36]. Tunis Sport City: an entire sports city currently being constructed in Tunis, Tunisia. The city that will consist of apartment buildings as well as several sports facilities will be built by the Bukhatir Group at a cost of $5 Billion[37]. Tunis Financial harbour: will deliver North Africa’s first offshore financial centre at Tunis Bay in a project with an end development value of US$ 3 billion[38]. Tunis Telecom City: A US$ 3 billion project to create an IT hub in Tunis[39]. Real estate market In recent years Tunisia has embarked on a new market. Since the beginning of the 2000´s, the real estate market has grown. The market focuses partially on residencies for private persons, but also larger projects aimed at the tourist and sales market. Notable investors reside in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. Oil and gas extraction Oil production of Tunisia is about 97 600 barrels/day. The main field is El bourma.[40] Energy Sources of electricity production[41] The majority of the electricity used in Tunisia is produced locally, by stateowned company STEG (Société Tunisienne de l´Electricité et du Gaz).In 2008 a total of 13 747 GHW was produced in the country,[42]. Oil and gas Oil production began in 1966 in Tunisia. Currently there is 12 oil fields[43]. Below is a list of the oil fields: Oil field Oil field 7 November oil field El Menzah field Ashtart field Belli field Bouri field Cercina field El Biban field El Borma field Ezzaouia field Miskar field Sidi El Kilani field Tazarka field Nuclear energy Tunisia is on the path of installing two nuclear powerplants within a 10 year period. Each one of these is projected at producing 900-1000 MW. In it´s effort to obtain nuclear energy, France is set to become an important partner. Tunisia and France have inked agreements, where France will deliver training and know-how amongst others [44][45]. Desertec project The Desertec project is a large-scale energy project aimed at installing solarpower panels in, and a grid connecting North Africa and Europe. Tunisia will be a part of this project, but exactly how it may benefit from it remains to be seen. Transportation Main article: Transport in Tunisia Further information: Rail transport in Tunisia The new Radés-La Goulette bridge in Tunis. The country maintains 19 232 km of roads,[46] where the A1 Tunis-Sfax, P1 Tunis-Libya and P7 Tunis-Algeria are major highways. There are 30 airports in Tunisia, with Tunis Carthage International Airport and Monastir International Airport being the most important ones. A New airport Zine El Abidine Ben Ali International Airport was completed at the end of October 2009, and is due to open December 2009. However, it appears flights are unlikely to start before the Easter season of 2010. The airport is located North of Sousse at Enfidha, and is likely to serve the resorts of Hamammet and Port El Kantoui, together with inland cities such as Kairouan. There are four airlines headquartered in Tunisia: Tunisair, Karthago Airlines, Nouvelair and Sevenair. The railway network is operated by SNCFT, and amounts to 2135 km in total[46]. The Tunis area is served by a tram network, named Metro Leger. Religion Main article: Religion in Tunisia The constitution declares Islam as the official state religion and requires the President to be Muslim. Tunisia also enjoys a significant degree of religious freedom, a right enshrined and protected in its constitution which guarantees the freedom to practice one's religion.[47] The country has a culture that encourages acceptance of other religions; religious freedom is widely practiced. However, the government has been accused[citation needed] of limiting the freedom of Muslims by banning the wearing the Headscarf (Hijab). The government believes the Hijab is a "garment of foreign origin having a partisan connotation" because it is not specifically prescribed by the Koran.[48] Individual Tunisians are tolerant of religious freedom and generally do not inquire about a person's personal beliefs.[47] Cathedral of St. Vincent de Paul The majority of Tunisia's population (98%) are Muslims, while 1% follow Christianity and the rest (1%) adhere to Judaism or other religions.[49] However, there are no reliable data on the number of practicing Muslims. Some reports stipulate that atheists form the second largest group in the country (making it probably on top of any other North African country)[50]. Tunisia has a sizable Christian community of around 25,000 adherents; mainly Catholics (20,000) and to a lesser degree Protestants. Judaism is the country's third largest religion with 1,500 members. One-third of the Jewish population lives in and around the capital. The remainder lives on the island of Djerba, where the Jewish community dates back 2,500 years[47]. Djerba, an island in the Gulf of Gabès, is home to El Ghriba synagogue, which is one of the oldest synagogues in the world. Many Jews consider it a pilgrimage site with celebrations taking place there once every year. Governorates & cities Governorates Governorates of Tunisia Main articles: Governorates of Tunisia and Delegations of Tunisia Tunisia is subdivided into 24 governorates, they are: Ariana Béja Ben Arous Bizerte Gabès Gafsa Jendouba Kairouan Kasserine Kebili Kef Mahdia Manouba Medenine Monastir Nabeul Sfax Sidi Bou Zid Siliana Sousse Tataouine Tozeur Tunis Zaghouan The governorates are divided into 264 "delegations" or "districts" (mutamadiyat), and further subdivided into municipalities (shaykhats)[51] and sectors (imadats).[52] Major cities City Population Tunis 3 980 500 Sfax 277 278 [53] Sousse 164 123 [54] Kairouan 119 794 [55] At Tadaman 118 487 [56] Military Main article: Military of Tunisia The Tunisian armed forces are divided into three branches: Army Tunisian Air Force Navy Tunisia's military spending is 1.6% of GDP (2006). The army is responsible for national defence and als