eans "to lie down". Further information: Etymology of Tunis History Main article: History of Tunisia Antiquity At the beginning of known recorded history, Tunisia was inhabited by Berber tribes. Its coast was settled by Phoenicians starting as early as the 10th century B.C. The city of Carthage was founded in the 9th century B.C. by settlers from Tyre, now in modern day Lebanon. Legend says, that Dido founded the city in 814 B.C., as retold in by the Greek writer Timaeus of Tauromenium. The settlers of Carthage brought their culture and religion from the Phoenicians and other Canaanites. Hannibal After a series of wars with Greek city-states of Sicily in the 5th century BC, Carthage rose to power and eventually became the dominant civilization in the Western Mediterranean. The people of Carthage worshipped a pantheon of Middle Eastern gods including Baal and Tanit. Tanit's symbol, a simple female figure with extended arms and long dress, is a popular icon found in ancient sites. The founders of Carthage also established a Tophet which was altered in Roman times. The history of human culture in Tunisia goes back thousands of years. Early farming methods reached the Nile Valley from the Fertile Crescents region in about 5000 B.C from there, farming spread to the Maghreb by about 4000 B.C The humid coastal plains of central Tunisia were home to the early agricultural communities, populated by the ancestors of the Berber tribes. The Roman Period Though the Romans referred to the new empire growing in the city of Carthage as Punic or Phoenician, the empire built around Carthage was an independent political entity from the other Phoenician settlements in the Western Mediterranean. A Carthaginian invasion of Italy led by Hannibal during the Second Punic War, one of a series of wars with Rome, nearly crippled the rise of the Roman Empire. Carthage was eventually conquered by Rome in the 2nd century BC, a turning point which led to ancient Mediterranean civilization having been influenced mainly by European instead of African cultures. After the Roman conquest, the region became one of the granaries of Rome, and was Latinized and Christianized. The Romans controlled nearly all of modern Tunisia, unlike other modern African countries, of which Rome only held the northern coast. It was conquered by the Vandals in the 5th century AD and reconquered by the commander Belisarius in the 6th century during the rule of Byzantine emperor Justinian. The Islamic Period The Great Mosque of Al-Zaytuna Minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan, also known as the Mosque of Uqba. Founded in 670, it is the oldest mosque in Tunisia as well as the oldest in the Muslim West, city of Kairouan. Around the end of the 7th century and the beginning of 8th century the region was conquered by Arab Muslims, who founded the city of Kairouan which became the first city of Islam in North Africa ; in this period was erected (in 670) the Great Mosque of Kairouan considered as the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world[20] as well as a great masterpiece of Islamic art and architecture.[21] Tunisia flourished under Arab rule. Extensive irrigation installations were constructed to supply towns with water and promote agriculture (especially olive production).[22][23] This prosperity permitted luxurious court life and was marked by the construction of new Palace cities such as al-Abassiya (809) and Raqadda (877).[22] Successive Muslim dynasties ruled Tunisia (Ifriqiya at the time) with occasional instabilities caused mainly by Berber rebellions;[citation needed] of these reigns we can cite the Aghlabids (800-900) and Fatimids (909-972). After conquering Cairo, Fatimids abandoned North Africa to the local Zirids (Tunisia and parts of Eastern Algeria, 972-1148) and Hammadid (Central and eastern Algeria, 1015–1152).[24] North Africa was submerged by their quarrels; political instability was connected to the decline of Tunisian trade and agriculture.[22][25][26] In addition the invasion of Tunisia by Banu Hilal, a warlike Arab Bedouin tribes encouraged by Fatimids of Egypt to seize North Africa, sent the region's urban and economic life into further decline.[24] The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun wrote that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert.[25][27] The coasts were held briefly by the Normans of Sicily in the 12th century and the following Arab reconquest made the last Christians in Tunisia disappear. In 1159, Tunisia was conquered by the Almohad caliphs. They were succeeded by the Berber Hafsids (c.1230–1574), under whom Tunisia prospered. In the late 16th century the coast became a pirate stronghold (see: Barbary States). The Ottoman Rule In the last years of the Hafsids, Spain seized many of the coastal cities, but these were recovered by the Ottoman Empire. Under its Turkish governors, the Beys, Tunisia attained virtual independence. The Hussein dynasty of Beys, established in 1705, lasted until 1957. The Maghreb suffered from the deadly combination of plague and famine.[28] The great epidemics ravaged Tunisia in 1784–1785, 1796–1797 and 1818–1820.[29] The French era In 1869, Tunisia declared itself bankrupt and an international financial commission took control over the economy. In 1881, using the pretext of a Tunisian incursion into Algeria, the French invaded with an army of about 36,000 and forced the Bey to make terms in the form of the 1881 Treaty of Bardo (Al Qasr as Sa'id). With this treaty, Tunisia was officially made a French protectorate, over the objections of Italy. Under French colonization, European settlements in the country were actively encouraged; the number of French colonists grew from 34,000 in 1906 to 144,000 in 1945. In 1910 there were 105,000 Italians in Tunisia.[30] World War II Main article: Tunisia Campaign In 1942–1943, Tunisia was the scene of the third major operations by the Allied Forces (the British Empire and the United States) against the Axis Powers (Italy and Germany) during World War II. The main body of the British army, advancing from their victory in the Battle of el-Alamein under the command of British Field Marshal Montgomery, pushed into Tunisia from the south. The US and other allies, following their invasions of Algeria and Morocco in Operation Torch, invaded from the west. German and Italian POWs, following the fall of Tunis, 12 May 1943. Over 230,000 German and Italian troops were taken as prisoners of war. Field Marshall Erwin Rommel, commander of the Axis forces in North Africa, had hoped to inflict a similar defeat on the allies in Tunisia as German forces did in the Battle of France in 1940. Before the battle for el-Alamein, the allied forces had been forced to retreat toward Egypt. As such, the battle for Tunisia was a major test for the allies. They figured out that in order to defeat Axis forces they would have to coordinate their actions and quickly recover from the inevitable setbacks the German-Italian forces would inflict. On February 19, 1943, Field Marshall Erwin Rommel launched an attack on the American forces in the Kasserine Pass region of Western Tunisia, hoping to inflict the kind of demoralizing and alliance-shattering defeat the Germans had dealt to Poland, Britain and France. The initial results were a disaster for the United States; the area around the Kasserine Pass is the site of many US war graves from that time. However, the American forces were ultimately able to reverse their retreat. With a critical strategy in tank warfare,and having determined that encirclement was feasible, the Btitish and New Zealand forces broke through the Mareth line on March 20, 1943. The Allies subsequently linked up on April 8 and on May 2, 1943 the German-Italian Army in Tunisia surrendered. Thus, the United States, United Kingdom, Free French, and Polish (as well as other forces) were able to win a major battle as an allied army. The battle, though overshadowed by Stalingrad, represented a major allied victory of World War II largely because it forged the Alliance which would one day liberate Western Europe. Present-day politics Main article: Politics of Tunisia The Economist Democracy Index map for 2008, with lighter colours representing more democratic countries. Countries with DI below 3 (clearly authoritarian) are black, as is Tunisia. In this 2008 Freedom of Press Index countries with orange and red colours, like Tunisia, are the least free. Although Tunisia is considered a procedural democracy, it is often referred to as an authoritarian regime and police state. Independent human rights groups, such as Amnesty International, Freedom House, and Protection International have documented that basic human and political rights are not respected.[31][32][33] The regime obstructs in any way possible the work of local human rights organizations.[34] In the Economist's 2008 Democracy Index Tunisia is classified as an authoritarian regime ranking 141 out of 167 studied countries. In 2008, in terms of freedom of press, Tunisia was ranked 143 out of 173, that is worse than neighbouring Algeria and Morocco.[35][36] The president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, previously Bourguiba's minister and a military figure, has been in office since 1987, the year he acceded to the executive office of Habib Bourguiba after a team of medical experts judged Bourguiba unfit to exercise the functions of the office. The event is often described as a 'medical coup'.[37][38][39] The day of his succession, 7 November, is celebrated by the state as national holiday, with the state-owned television,[40] many public buildings and even the national currency Tunisian dinar and the only private airline Sevenair and TV station (both owned by the family of the President's wife) displaying the '7 November' logo. Ben Ali has been re-elected with enormous majorities every election, the last time being October 25, 2009.[41] In theory, Tunisia has a republican presidential system characterized by a bicameral parliamentary system, including the Chamber of Deputies, which has 214 seats, 25% of which are reserved for 'opposition parties' and the Chamber of Advisors (112 members) which is composed of representatives of political parties, professional organisations patronised by the president and by personalities appointed by the president of the Republic. The president appoints a Prime Minister and a cabinet who play a minor role in the execution of policy. Regional governors and local administrators are also appointed by the central government. Largely consultative mayors and municipal councils are elected. In presidential, parliamentary and local elections the vast majority of seats goes to the President's party known as the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD) in French. It is composed of more than 2 million members and more than 6000 representations throughout the country and largely overlaps with all important state institutions. Although the party was renamed (in Bourguiba’s days it used to be known as the Socialist Destourian Party), its policies are still considered to be largely secular but not socialist or liberal (Incidentally, both chambers of parliament are composed of more than 20% women, something extremely rare in the Arab world. Moreover, Tunisia is the only country in the Arab world where polygamy is forbidden by law. This is part of a provision in the country’s Code of Personal Status which was introduced by the former president Bourguiba in 1956.) There are currently eight other small political parties in Tunisia, six of whom are represented in the parliament giving a semblance of legitimacy. The judiciary is not independent in constitutional matters and often corrupt in civil and criminal cases.[42] The USA government designates Tunisia's Judiciary as only "nominally independent" and notes that all judges are appointed by the Minister of Justice.[43] The military does not play an obvious role in politics letting the ex-army man President run the country. In reality, all power is monopolized formally by Ben Ali and his party - which incidentally is housed in Tunis's tallest tower - and informally by influential families such as the all powerful Trabelsi[44] from the president's young second wife's side, Leila, a former coiffeuse.[45][46][47][48][49] The regime's rhetoric is paradoxical: the slogan of the President's party is "change" while the Presidency's person and policies have been the same for decades. Human Rights All government and many private enterprise buildings carry oversized portraits of authoritarian President Ben Ali. Here: the Office of Merchant Navy and Ports. The rubber stamp parliament has repeatedly passed laws that make Tunisia appear democratic to outsiders. Since 1987 Tunisia has formally reformed its political system several times, abolishing life presidency and opening up the parliament to opposition parties. The President's official speeches are full of references to the importance of democracy and freedom of speech.[50] According to Amnesty International, however, "the Tunisian government is misleading the world as it conveys a positive image of the human rights situation in the country while abuses by its security forces continue unabated and are committed with impunity".[51] The result is a sense of depression among the thinking classes and Tunisians abroad.[52][53] The regime has been growing increasingly repressive even after the complete defeat of Islamist extremists in the early 90's.[54][55] Censorship in Tunisia is widespread. In practice no public criticism of the regime is tolerated and all direct protest is severely suppressed and does not get reported in the media as was the case with the public demonstrations against nepotism and corruption in 'Redayef' near the city of Gafsa, in the country's south, in 2008.[7][56] On 10 July 2010 the BBC reported that the regime would jail sick journalist Fahem Boukadous who had reported on the incidents [57] Self-censorship is widespread with people fearing the police which is present everywhere and frequently stops and searches individuals and vehicles - often demanding small amounts of bribe money to make up for their meagre salaries. There is a much encouraged and apparently organised personality cult. Daily newspapers run eulogistic articles praising the President whose picture graces the first page on a daily basis, often alongside similar articles and pictures of his wife, Leila.[58] Large pictures of President Ben Ali and 'spontaneously' erected banners praising him are found on all public buildings and majors streets.[59][60][61][62][63] The country's latest built airport was also named after President Ben Ali.[64] Internet censorship is severe with banned sites including YouTube. YouTube has been blocked in Tunisia since at least November 2, 2007, with a forged HTTP 404 error message appearing instead.[citation needed] The reasons for such an action unknown and no explanations have been given. Reporters without borders includes Tunisia in the country list of 'Enemies of the Internet' together with North Korea, Saudi Arabia and Turkmenistan.[65][66] In January 2010 US Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton mentioned Tunisia and China as the two countries with the greatest internet censorship.[67] Nevertheless the internet has witnessed a considerable development with more than 1.1 million users and hundreds of internet cafes, known as ‘publinet.’ This is primarily related to the widespread unemployment and lack of democracy and opportunities resulting in millions of bored unemployed graduates.[citation needed] Hundreds of thousands of young men avoid compulsory conscription and live with the constant fear of arrest although it appears that the police only go after them in certain times of the year only (the 'raffle') and often let them go if a sufficient bribe is paid.[68] Thousands of unemployed young men attempt illegal immigration to Europe by sea and often die in the process. Accusations have been made the regime has become a kleptocracy with corrupt members of the Trabelsi family, most notably in the cases of Imed Trabelsi and Belhassen Trabelsi, controlling much of the business sector in the country.[69] In its January/February 2008 issue, the Foreign Policy Magazine reported that Tunisia's First Lady had been using the 737 Boeing Business Jet[70] of the government to make "unofficial visits" to European Fashion Capitals, such as Milan, Paris and Geneva. The report mentioned that the trips are not on the official travel itinerary. Bloggers tracked the official airplane on spotting webpages as Airliners.net. The first lady has been described as a shopaholic.[71][72] Recently Tunisia refused a French request for the extradition of two of the President's nephews, from Leila's side, who are accused by the French State prosecutor of having stolen two mega-yachts from a French marina.[73] Rumours have been circulating that Ben Ali's son-in-law Sakher al-Materi (the husband of Zine and Leila's daughter Nessrine) is being primed to eventually take over the country. As of October 2009, he has used family privileges and connections to create a place for himself in the country's economy, and is making his political debut.[74] Tunisian journalists and human rights activists are harassed, and face surveillance and imprisonment under harsh conditions. Others are dismissed from their jobs or denied their right to communicate and move freely. The authorities have also prevented the emergence of an independent judiciary, further compounding the problem.[75] 2009 National elections Main article: Tunisian general election, 2009 On October 25, 2009, national elections were held in Tunisia in "an atmosphere of repression".[76] The election appeared predetermined. Ben Ali faced three obscure candidates, two of whom said they actually supported the incumbent. No independent observer was allowed to monitor the vote. The election consisted of a presidential one and a parliamentary one. As expected, the sitting president Zinedine Ben Ali won a landslide victory, with 89.62%. His opponent, Mohamed Bouchiha, received 5.01%. The candidate who was most critical of the regime, Ahmed Ibrahim, of the Ettajdid party received only 1.57% after a 'campaign' in which he was not allowed to put posters up or hold any kind of meeting.[77] The president's party, the CDR, also got the majority of votes for the parliamentary election, 84.59%. The Movement of Socialist Democrats party received 4.63%.[citation needed] The election received criticism in foreign media.[78] Human Rights Watch has reported that parties and candidates were denied exposure equal to the sitting president, and that the Ettajdid party's weekly publication, Ettarik al-Jadid, was seized by authorities.[79] According to the Committee to Protect Journalists "97% of newspaper campaign coverage was devoted to President Ben Ali amid severe restrictions on independent reporting. Ben Ali’s government went after the country’s journalist union, bringing down its democratically elected board, while his police bullied and harassed critical reporters. Two journalists, one of them a leading critic of the president, were in jail in late year. Journalist Taoufik Ben Brik, who had published two articles in French newspapers that were critical of the regime, has been incarcerated since October 29, 2009. The Court of Appeal upheld a sentence of nine years on 3- January 2010 in a trial that "confirmed the complete absence of independence of the Tunisian legal system" the defendant's French lawyer William Bourdon said [80] Florence Beaugé, a correspondent for the French daily Le Monde, tried to cover the polling but was put on a flight back to Paris on October 21.[81] Candidate Percentage of votes (%) Zine El Abidine Ben Ali (RCD) 89.62% Mohamed Bouchiha (PPU) 5.01% Ahmed Linoubli (UDU) 3.80% Ahmed Ibrahim (ME) 1.57