urelle's map and journal named the island El Gran Cocal ('The Great Coconut Plantation'); however, the latitude and longitude was uncertain.[9] The next European to visit was Arent Schuyler de Peyster, of York, captain of the armed brigantine or privateer Rebecca, sailing under British colours,[10] which passed through the southern Tuvalu waters in May 1819; de Peyster sighted Nukufetau and Funafuti, which he named Ellice's Island after an English Politician, Edward Ellice, the Member of Parliament for Coventry and the owner of the Rebecca's cargo.[9] In 1820 the Russian explorer Mikhail Lazarev visited Nukufetau as commander of the Mirny.[9] Following 1819 whalers were roving the Pacific though visiting Tuvalu only infrequently because of the difficulties of landing ships on the atolls. No settlements were established by the whalers.[9] Peruvian slave raiders ("blackbirders") seeking workers to mine the guano deposits on the Chincha Islands in Peru, combed the Pacific between 1862 and 1865, including the southern islands of Tuvalu.[11] The Rev. A. W. Murray,[12] the earliest European missionary in Tuvalu, reported that in 1863 about 180 people[13] were taken from Funafuti and about 200 were taken from Nukulaelae[14] as there were fewer than 100 of the 300 recorded in 1861 as living on Nukulaelae.[15][16] Christianity first came to Tuvalu in 1861 when Elekana, a deacon of a Congregational church in Manihiki, Cook Islands became caught in a storm and drifted for 8 weeks before landing at Nukulaelae.[9] Elekana began proselytizing Christianity. He was trained in a London Missionary Society school in Samoa before beginning his work in establishing the Church of Tuvalu.[9] In 1865 the Rev. A. W. Murray of the London Missionary Society – a Protestant congregationalist missionary society – arrived as the first European missionary where he too proselytized among the inhabitants of Tuvalu. By 1878 the Church of Tuvalu was well established with preachers on each island.[9] A man from the Nukufetau atoll, drawn by Alfred Agate 1841. Trading firms and traders Trading companies became active in Tuvalu in the mid-nineteenth century; the trading companies engaged palagi traders who lived on the islands. Some islands would have competing traders while dryer islands might only have a single trader.[17] In 1892, Captain Davis of the HMS Royalist, reported on trading activities and traders on each of the islands visited.[18] Captain Davis identified the following traders in the Ellice Group: Edmund Duffy (Nanumea); Jack Buckland (Niutao); Harry Nitz (Vaitupu); John (also known as Jack) O'Brien (Funafuti); Alfred Restieaux and Fenisot (Nukufetau); and Martin Kleis (Nui).[19] During this time, the greatest number of palagi traders lived on the atolls, acting as agents for the trading companies.[17] In the later 1890s and into first decade of the 20th century, structural changes occurred in the operation of the Pacific trading companies; trading companies moved from a practice of having traders resident on each island to instead becoming a business operation where the supercargo (the cargo manager of a trading ship) would deal directly with the islanders when a ship visited an island. From 1900, the numbers of palagi traders in Tuvalu declined with the last of the palagi traders being Fred Whibley on Niutao and Alfred Restieaux on Nukufetau. By 1909 there were no more resident palagi traders representing the trading companies,[20] although both Fred Whibley and Alfred Restieaux[21] remained in the islands until their deaths. Scientific expeditions and travellers Woman on Funafuti, Harry Clifford Fassett (1900) The United States Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes visited Funafuti, Nukufetau and Vaitupu in 1841.[22] During this expedition, on Tuvalu, Alfred Thomas Agate, engraver and illustrator, recorded the dress and tattoo patterns of the men of Nukufetau.[23] In 1890, Robert Louis Stevenson, his wife Fanny Vandegrift Stevenson and her son Lloyd Osbourne sailed on the Janet Nicoll, a trading steamer owned by Henderson and Macfarlane of Auckland, New Zealand, which operated between Sydney, Auckland and into the central Pacific.[24] The Janet Nicoll visited Tuvalu;[25] while Fanny records that they made landfall at Funafuti and Niutao, Jane Resture suggests that it was more likely Nukufetau rather than Funafuti.[26] An account of this voyage was written by Fanny Vandegrift Stevenson and published under the title The Cruise of the Janet Nichol,[27] together with photographs taken by Robert Louis Stevenson and Lloyd Osbourne. In 1894, Count Rudolph Festetics de Tolna, his wife Eila (née Haggin) and her daughter Blanche Haggin visited Funafuti aboard the yacht Le Tolna.[28] Le Tolna spent several days at Funafuti with the Count photographing men and woman on Funafuti.[29] The boreholes on Funafuti, at the site now called David's Drill, are the result of drilling conducted by the Royal Society of London for the purpose of investigating the formation of coral reefs to determine whether traces of shallow water organisms could be found at depth in the coral of Pacific atolls. This investigation followed the work on the structure and distribution of coral reefs conducted by Charles Darwin in the Pacific. Drilling occurred in 1896, 1897 and 1911. Professor Edgeworth David of the University of Sydney lead the expeditions in 1896 & 1897.[30] Photographers on these trips recorded people, communities and scenes at Funafuti.[31] Harry Clifford Fassett, captain's clerk and photographer, recorded people, communities and scenes at Funafuti during a visit of USFC Albatross when the U.S. Fish Commission was investigating the formation of coral reefs on Pacific atolls in 1900.[32] Politics Main article: Politics of Tuvalu Tuvalu is a Parliamentary Democracy and Commonwealth realm with Queen Elizabeth II serving as the country's head of state and bearing the title Queen of Tuvalu. Since the Queen does not reside in the islands, she is represented in Tuvalu by a Governor General appointed by the Queen upon the advice of the country's elected Prime Minister. The local unicameral Parliament, or Fale I Fono, has 15 members and is elected every four years. Its members select a Prime Minister who is the head of government. The Cabinet is appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister. In addition, each island has its own high-chief, or ulu-aliki, and several sub-chiefs (alikis) and elders. The elders form together an island council of elders or te sina o fenua (literally:"grey-hairs of the land"). In the past, another caste, one of the priests (tofuga), was also amongst the decision-makers. The sina o fenua, aliki and ulu-aliki exercise informal authority at the local level. Ulu-aliki are always chosen based on ancestry. Their powers are now shared with the pule o kaupule (elected village presidents; one on each atoll).[33] There are no formal political parties and election campaigns are largely based on personal/family ties and reputations. The highest court in Tuvalu is the High Court; there are eight Island Courts with limited jurisdiction. Rulings from the High Court can be appealed to the Court of Appeal of Tuvalu.[34] From the Court of Appeal there is a right of appeal to Her Majesty in Council, i.e., the Privy Council in London. Defence and law enforcement Tuvalu has no regular military forces, and spends no money on the military. Its police force includes a Maritime Surveillance Unit for search and rescue missions and surveillance operations. The police have a Pacific-class patrol boat (HMTSS Te Mataili) provided by Australia under the Pacific Patrol Boat Program for use in maritime surveillance and fishery patrol.[35] HMTSS stands for His/Her Majesty's Tuvaluan State Ship or His/Her Majesty's Tuvalu Surveillance Ship. See also: Law enforcement in Tuvalu It has been suggested that Law enforcement in Tuvalu be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since November 2011. Districts Map of Tuvalu. Main article: Islands of Tuvalu Tuvalu's small population is distributed across nine islands, five of which are atolls. The smallest island, Niulakita, was uninhabited until it was settled by people from Niutao in 1949. Local government districts consisting of more than one islet: Funafuti Nanumea Nui Nukufetau Nukulaelae Vaitupu Local government districts consisting of only one island: Nanumanga Niulakita Niutao Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Tuvalu Tuvalu participates in the work of Secretariat of the Pacific Community, or SPC (sometimes Pacific Community) and is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum, the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations. Tuvalu has maintained a mission at the United Nations in New York City since 2000. Tuvalu is a member of the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank. Tuvalu maintains close relations with Fiji, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, South Korea, the United Kingdom and the European Union. It has diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan); the ROC maintains the only resident embassy in Tuvalu and has a large assistance programme in the islands. A major international priority for Tuvalu in the UN, at the 2002 Earth Summit in Johannesburg, South Africa and in other international fora, is promoting concern about global warming and the possible sea level rising. Tuvalu advocates ratification and implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. In December 2009 the islands stalled talks on climate change at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, fearing some other developing countries were not committing fully to binding deals on a reduction in carbon emissions. Their chief negotiator stated, "Tuvalu is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to climate change and our future rests on the outcome of this meeting."[36] Tuvalu participates in the operations of the Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) and the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREC).[37] Tuvalu is party to a treaty of friendship with the United States, signed soon after independence and ratified by the U.S. Senate in 1983, under which the United States renounced prior territorial claims to four Tuvaluan islands (Funafuti, Nukefetau, Nukulaelae and Niulakita) under the Guano Islands Act of 1856.[38] Tuvalu participates in the operations of the Pacific Island Forum Fisheries Agency[39] and the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC).[40] The Tuvaluan government, the US government, and the governments of other Pacific islands, are parties to the South Pacific Tuna Treaty (SPTT), entered into force in 1988. The current SPTT agreement expires on June 14, 2013.[41] Tuvalu is also a member of the Parties to the Nauru Agreement which addresses the management of tuna purse-seine fishing in the tropical western Pacific.[42] Geography and environment A beach at Funafuti atoll. Main article: Geography of Tuvalu Tuvalu consists of three reef islands and six true atolls. Its small, scattered group of atolls have poor soil and a total land area of only about 26 square kilometres (less than 10 sq. mi) making it the fourth smallest country in the world. The islets that form the atolls are very low lying. Nanumanga, Niutao, Niulakita are reef islands and the six true atolls are Funafuti, Nanumea, Nui, Nukufetau, Nukulaelae and Vaitupu. Funafuti is the largest atoll of the nine low reef islands and atolls that form the Tuvalu volcanic island chain. It comprises numerous islets around a central lagoon that is approximately 25.1 kilometres (15.6 miles) (N–S) by 18.4 kilometres (11.4 miles) (W-E), centred on 179°7’E and 8°30’S. On the atolls, an annular reef rim surrounds the lagoon with several natural reef channels.[43] The eastern shoreline of Funafuti Lagoon was modified during World War II when the airfield (what is now Funafuti International Airport) was constructed. Several piers were also constructed, beach areas were filled and deep water access channels were excavated. These alterations to the reef and shoreline resulted in changes to wave patterns with less sand accumulating to form the beaches as compared to former times and the shoreline now exposed to wave action. Several attempts to stabilize the shoreline have not achieved the desired effect.[44] The reefs at Funafuti have suffered damage, with 80 per cent of the coral becoming bleached as a consequence of the increase in ocean temperatures and acidification from increased levels of carbon dioxide.[45] A reef restoration project has investigated reef restoration techniques;[46] and researchers from Japan have investigated rebuilding the coral reefs through the introduction of foraminifer.[47] The highest elevation is 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level on Niulakita,[48] which gives Tuvalu the second-lowest maximum elevation of any country (after the Maldives). However, the highest elevations are typically in narrow storm dunes on the ocean side of the islands which are prone to overtopping in tropical cyclones, as occurred with Tropical Cyclone Bebe.[49][50] Because of the low elevation, the islands that make up this nation are threatened by current and future sea level rise.[51] Additionally, Tuvalu is annually affected by king tide events which peak towards the end of the austral summer, and raise the sea level higher than a normal high tide.[52] As a result of historical sea level rise, the king tide events lead to flooding of low lying areas, which is compounded when sea levels are further raised by La Niña effects or local storms and waves. In the future, sea level rise may threaten to submerge the nation entirely as it is estimated that a sea level rise of 20–40 centimetres (8–16 inches) in the next 100 years could make Tuvalu uninhabitable.[53][54] A wharf and beach at Funafuti atoll Tuvalu experiences westerly gales and heavy rain from October to March – the period that is known as Tau-o-lalo; with tropical temperatures moderated by easterly winds from April to November. Drinking water is mainly obtained from rainwater collected on roofs and stored in tanks. These systems are often poorly maintained, resulting in a lack of water.[55] Aid programmes of Australia and the European Union have been directed to improving the storage capacity on Funafuti and in the outer islands.[56] The rising population has resulted in an increased demand on fish stocks, which are under stress;[45] although the creation of the Funafuti Conservation Area has provided a fishing exclusion area to help sustain the fish population across the Funafuti lagoon. Population pressure on the resources of Funafuti and inadequate sanitation systems have resulted in pollution.[51][57] The Waste Operations and Services Act of 2009 provides the legal framework for waste management and pollution control projects funded by the European Union directed at organic waste composting in eco-sanitation systems.[58] Plastic waste is also a problem as much imported food and other commodities are supplied in plastic containers or packaging. When the World War II airfield at Funafuti was constructed, the coral base of the atoll was used as fill to create the runway. The resulting borrow pits impacted the water aquifer. At these pits, the sea water can be seen bubbling up through the porous coral rock to form pools with each high tide.[59][60][61] Tourism See also: Funafuti Conservation Area and Public holidays in Tuvalu The main island of Funafuti is the focus of travelers, since the only airport in Tuvalu is the Funafuti International Airport and the island has hotel facilities.[62] Ecotourism is a motivation of travelers to Tuvalu. The Funafuti Conservation Area consists of 33 square kilometers of ocean, reef, lagoon, channel and six uninhabited islets.[63] The outer atolls can be visited on the two passenger-cargo ships, Nivaga II and Manu Folau, which provide round-trip visits to the outer islands every three or four weeks.[64] There are no tourist accommodations on the outer atolls. Economy Main article: Economy of Tuvalu From 1996 to 2002, Tuvalu was one of the best-performing Pacific Island economies and achieved an average real gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate of 5.6 per cent per annum. Since 2002 economic growth has slowed, with GDP of 1.5% in 2008. Tuvalu was exposed to rapid rises in world prices of fuel and food in 2008, with the level of inflation peaking at 13.4%.[65] The International Monetary Fund 2010 Report on Tuvalu estimates that Tuvalu experienced zero growth in its 2010 GDP, after the economy contracted by about 2% in 2009.[66] Public sector workers make up about two-thirds of those formally employed. Approximately 15% of adult males work as seamen on foreign-flagged merchant ships. Tuvaluans are otherwise involved in traditional subsistence agriculture and fishing. Tuvalu generates income from the Tuvalu Trust Fund, the commercialisation of the ‘.tv’ top layer domain, fishing licences, the sale of stamps and coins, remittances from Tuvaluans living in Australia and New Zealand, and remittances from Tuvaluan sailors employed on overseas ships.[67][68] In 1998, Tuvalu began deriving revenue from the use of its area code for "900" lines and from the commercialisation of its ".tv" Internet domain name, which is now managed by Verisign.[69] The Tuvalu Trust Fund was established in 1987 by the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand.[67] The value of the Tuvalu Trust Fund is approximately $100 million.[65][66][70] Australia and New Zealand continue to contribute capital to the Tuvalu Trust Fund and provide other forms of development assistance.[67][68] The US government is also a major revenue source for Tuvalu, with 1999 payments from the South Pacific Tuna Treaty (SPTT) at about $9 million, which is expected to rise annually. The SPTT entered into force in 1988 with the current SPTT agreement which expires June 14, 2013.[41] Financial support to Tuvalu is also provided by Japan, South Korea and the European Union.[71] The United Nations designates Tuvalu as a ‘Least Developed Country’ because of its limited potential for economic development, absence of exploitable resources and its small size and vulnerability to external economic and environmental shocks.[72] Due to the country's remoteness, tourism does not provide much income; a thousand tourists are estimated to visit Tuvalu annually.[73] Demographics Main article: Demographics of Tuvalu The country's population has more than doubled since 1980 with a growth rate of 0.702%. The population at the 2002 census was 9,561,[74] and is estimated to reach 10,544 in July 2010.[1] The population of Tuvalu is primarily of Polynesian ethnicity with approximately 4% of the population being Micronesian.[1] The net migration rate is estimated at -7.02 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2011 est.)[1] The primary destinations for migration are New Zealand and Australia. New Zealand has an annual quota of 75 Tuvaluans granted work permits under the Pacific Access Category, as announced in 2001.[75] The applicants register for the Pacific Access Category (PAC) ballots; the primary criteria is that the principal applicant must have a job offer from a New Zealand employer.[76] Tuvaluans also have access to seasonal employment in the horticulture and viticulture industries in New Zealand under the Recognised Seasonal Employer (RSE) Work Policy introduced in 2007 allowing for employment of up to 5,000 workers from Tuvalu and other Pacific islands.[77] Australia and Tuvalu are discussing extending access to the Pacific Seasonal Worker Pilot Scheme to Tuvaluans.[78] Life expectancy is 62.7 years for males and 66.9 years for females (2011 est.)[1] The Tuvaluan language is spoken by virtually everyone while a language very similar to Gilbertese is s