.[22] Sheikh Zayed and the Union Al Fahdi Fort in Dubai in th late 1950's. In the early 1960s, oil was discovered in Abu Dhabi, an event that led to quick unification calls made by UAE sheikdoms. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan became ruler of Abu Dhabi in 1966 and the British started losing their oil investments and contracts to U.S. oil companies.[23] The British had earlier started a development office that helped in some small developments in the Emirates. The sheikhs of the Emirates then decided to form a council to coordinate matters between them and took over the development office. They formed the Trucial States Council,[24] and appointed Adi Bitar, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum's legal advisor, as Secretary General and Legal Advisor to the Council. The Council was terminated once the United Arab Emirates was formed.[25] Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan. In 1968, the United Kingdom announced its decision, reaffirmed in March 1971, to end the treaty relationships with the seven Trucial Sheikhdoms which had been, together with Bahrain and Qatar, under British protection. The nine attempted to form a union of Arab Emirates, but by mid-1971 they were still unable to agree on terms of union, even though the British treaty relationship was to expire in December of that year.[26] Bahrain became independent in August, and Qatar in September 1971. When the British-Trucial Shaikhdoms treaty expired on December 1, 1971, they became fully independent.[27] The rulers of Abu Dhabi and Dubai decided to form a union between their two emirates independently, prepare a constitution, then call the rulers of the other five emirates to a meeting and offer them the opportunity to join. It was also agreed between the two that the constitution be written by December 2, 1971.[28] On that date, at the Dubai Guesthouse Palace, four other emirates agreed to enter into a union called the United Arab Emirates. Ras al-Khaimah joined later, in early 1972.[29] [30] The UAE sent forces into Kuwait during the 1990–91 Persian Gulf War and the US also. The country signed a military defense agreement with the U.S. in 1994 and one with France in 1995. After the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States the UAE was identified as a major financial center used by Al-Qaeda in transferring money to the hijackers (two of the 9/11 hijackers were UAE citizens). The nation immediately cooperated with the U.S, freezing accounts tied to suspected terrorists and strongly clamping down on money laundering. The UAE supports military operations from the United States and other Coalition nations that are engaged in the liberation of Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003) as well as operations supporting the Global War on Terrorism for the Horn of Africa at the Al Dhafra Air Base located outside of Abu Dhabi. The air base also supported Allied operations during the 1991 Persian Gulf War and Operation Northern Watch. On November 2, 2004, the UAE's first president, His Highness Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, died. His eldest son, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, succeeded as ruler of Abu Dhabi. In accordance with the constitution, the UAE's Supreme Council of Rulers elected Khalifa as president. Sheikh Mohammad bin Zayed Al Nahyan succeeded Khalifa as Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi.[31] In January 2006, Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the prime minister of the UAE and the emir of Dubai, died, and Crown Prince Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum assumed both roles. Government and politics Main article: Politics of the United Arab Emirates See also: Military of the United Arab Emirates National Symbols of the UAE[32] Flag Flag of United Arab Emirates Anthem Ishy Bilady Animal Arabian Horse Bird Peregrine Falcon Flower Tribulus Omanense Tree Ghaf trees Juice Camel Milk Sport Camel racing Dress Khandura Politics of the United Arab Emirates takes place in a framework of a federal presidential elected monarchy, a federation of seven absolute monarchies, the Emirates of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai, Ras al-Khaimah and Umm al-Qaiwain. The ruler of Abu Dhabi is President of the United Arab Emirates, the head of state, and the ruler of Dubai is the Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates, the head of government.[33] The Presidency and Premiership of the United Arab Emirates is de facto hereditary to the Al Nahyan clan of Abu Dhabi and the Al Maktoum clan of Dubai. The President of the United Arab Emirates and the head of state is the ruler of Abu Dhabi and the Prime Minister and Vice President of the United Arab Emirates, is the ruler of Dubai and the head of government. The political influences and financial obligations of the Emirates are reflected by respective positions in the Federal government. While each Emirate still retains autonomy over own territory, a percentage of its revenue is allocated to the UAE’s central budget.[34] The federal system includes the executive branch which consists of the President, Vice President, the Federal Supreme Council (composed of the Emirates’ seven rulers), and a Cabinet, or Council of Current President of the United Arab Emirates, Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan Ministers. The legislative branch consists of a parliamentary body, the Federal National Council. A constitutionally independent judiciary includes the Federal Supreme Court.[35] Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan was the union's president from the nation's founding until his death on November 2, 2004. The Federal Supreme Council elected his son, Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, president the next day. Crown Prince Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan is the heir apparent. [36] The Supreme Council elects the Council of Ministers, while an appointed/elected forty-member Federal National Council, drawn from all the emirates, reviews proposed laws. The UAE’s parliamentary body represents the Emirates, and is half appointed by the rulers of the constituent states and the other half elected indirectly to serve two-year terms. The council carries out the country’s main consultative duties and has both a legislative and supervisory role provided by the Constitution. [37] There is a federal court system; all emirates except Ras al-Khaimah have joined the federal system; all emirates have both secular and Islamic law for civil, criminal, and high courts.[38] The UAE took its first steps towards indirect elections for the country’s parliament on National Day, December 2, 2005 upon the official announcement by HH Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan which followed the formation of an Electoral College. A National Electoral Committee was created and the UAE’s first election occurred during mid-December 2006. The election and appointment of nine women (comprising 22.5 per cent of the Council) strongly signified advancement and political participation of women in the United Arab Emirates. The long-term objective is for the FNC to be wholly-elected.[39] Law United Arab Emirates This article is part of the series: Politics and government of the United Arab Emirates Constitution Constitution of the United Arab Emirates Executive President Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan Prime Minister Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Legislative Federal National Council Rulers Elections 2006 election Emirates Foreign relations Human rights Other countries · Atlas  Politics portal view • talk • edit When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, the UAE has comparatively very liberal laws. the UAE is a civil law jurisdiction. However, Shari'a or Islamic law is applied to aspects of family law, inheritance and certain criminal acts. Women can drive in the UAE and there is a strong emphasis in equality and human rights brought by the UAE's National Human Rights Committee. A federal court system applies to all Emirates except Dubai and Ras Al Khaimah, which are not fully integrated into the federal judicial system. All Emirates have secular courts to rule about criminal, civil, and commercial matters, and Islamic courts to review family and religious disputes. The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation during the reign of the past, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, who came to power in 1971. The laws of the UAE tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in the UAE operate mainly in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in Qatar. However some do operate independently. In the UAE the establishment of the Civil and Criminal Courts resulted in diminishing the role of the Sharia Courts. Nevertheless, the competence of the Sharia Courts in some Emirates, particularly Abu Dhabi, was substantially expanded later on to include, in addition to matters of personal status, all types of civil and commercial disputes as well as serious criminal offences. Therefore, in addition to the Civil Courts, each of the seven Emirates maintains a parallel system of Sharia Courts which are organised and supervised locally. In common with other Persian Gulf Arab countries, sponsorship laws exist in the UAE. These laws have been widely described as akin to modern-day slavery.[40] The Sponsorship system (Kafeel or Kafala) exists throughout the GCC and means that a worker (not a tourist) may not enter the country without having a kafeel, cannot leave without the kafeel's permission (an Exit Permit must first be awarded by the sponsor, or kafeel), and the sponsor has the right to ban the employee from entering the UAE within 2–5 years of his first departure. Many sponsors do not allow the transfer of one employee to another sponsor. Civil cases may also be tried under Sharia courts with one exception: Shia may try such cases in their own courts. Other civil proceedings, including those involving claims against the Government and enforcement of foreign judgments Human rights Main article: Human rights in the United Arab Emirates See also: LGBT rights in United Arab Emirates Migrants, mostly of South Asian origin, constitute for 42.5% of the UAE’s workforce[41] and are subject to a range of human rights abuses. Workers typically arrive in debt to recruitment agents from home countries and upon arrival are often made to sign a new contract in English or Arabic which pays them less than had originally been agreed.[42] Visa and travel costs are typically added on to the original debt, and thus within hours of their arrival, workers often find that their debt-repayment time has increased significantly, possibly by years. Confiscation of passports is officially illegal, but in reality employers have been known to retain the passports of their semi or unskilled employees. All of the workers interviewed by Human Rights Watch in a 2006 report had had their passports confiscated.[43] The kafala system of employment, which ties an employee to one employer and prevents him or her from seeking alternative employment without the expressed approval of the original employer, operates in the UAE. Workers are therefore dependent on their employer for housing, wages and healthcare. The lack of proper enforcement mechanisms of the country’s labour laws means that in practice employers may break laws with little fear of prosecution. Accordingly, non-payment of wages, cramped and unsanitary living conditions, poor safety practices, physical and mental abuse are widespread. Local government representatives of South-Asian governments, such as Indian, Pakistani, Sri-Lankan and Bangladeshi consulates have also been of little help in providing representation for their nationals in such cases. The issue of sexual abuse among female domestic servants is an area of concern, particularly given that domestic servants are not covered by the UAE Labour Law of 1980 or the Draft Labour Law of 2007, which was heavily criticised by Human Rights Watch.[44] In 2007 the falling dollar meant workers were unable to service debts and the incidence of suicides among Indian workers had reportedly been on the increase.[45] Worker protests have been heavily cracked down on with reports of collective expulsion and imprisonment.[46] The government has ignored international pressure to introduce trade unions despite repeated promises to do so going back to 2004.[47] From the perspective of international human rights law, the UAE is in violation of its obligations under the terms of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, in particular where its treatment of non-citizens is concerned. It is in violation of its obligations under the terms of the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, particularly where its treatment of domestic workers is concerned. Recent initiatives to stamp out the practice of child labor have headed off criticism that it violates its obligations under the terms of the International Convention on the Rights of the Child. There is also an argument that the UAE is in violation of its obligation to stamp out the debt bondage and furthermore that the state is itself involved in it and profits from that debt bondage.[48] Even though the UAE government has made some advances in the protection of human rights, the U.S. Department of State notes in its annual[specify] report on human rights practices that numerous fundamentalist practices and policies exist to the contrary. As Sharia prohibits 'sodomy', homosexual relationships are not commonly disclosed.[49][50] Homosexual behavior in public may result in imprisonment and/or deportation.[51] The UAE also does not allow individuals past retirement age to stay within the country without a job. Upon retirement, residents must return to their country of origin. People with TB, Hepatitis C and AIDS are also at a disadvantage as any non-citizen found with these illnesses may be deported.[52][53] Discrimination in the workplace has also been reported; prospective employers will specify religion, nationality (and even regional origin in some cases) and also specify the sex of required candidates within job advertisements. However, this is often a necessity due to modesty considerations in traditional societies as well as language requirements in a country where much of the population does not speak the national language. Different pay scales may also occur depending on nationality and sex in order to reduce an overwhelming reliance on foreign labour. Policies are in place in certain instances where state employers are required to fill in vacancies with UAE nationals, a process called Emiratisation.[54] Foreign policy and military Main articles: Foreign relations of the United Arab Emirates and Military of the United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates F-16 Block 60 The UAE’s liberal climate towards foreign cooperation, investment and modernization has prompted extensive diplomatic and commercial relations with other countries. It plays a significant role in OPEC, the UN and is one of the founding members of the Gulf Cooperation Council. Regionally, the UAE has a very close relationship with other GCC members as well as most of the Arab countries. The Emirates have long maintained close relations with Egypt and remain the highest investors in the country from among the rest of the Arab world[55]. Pakistan has also been a major recipient of economic aid and relations have been extremely close since the founding of the federation. Pakistan had been first to formally recognize the UAE upon its formation and continues to be one of its major economic and trading partners with about 400,000 expatriates receiving employment in the UAE[56] [57]. India’s large expat community in the UAE also has for centuries evolved into current close political, economic and cultural ties. The largest demographic presence in the Emirates is Indian[58]. Like most countries in the region, the UAE and Iran dispute rights to a number of islands in the Persian Gulf but this has not significantly impacted relations due to the large Iranian community presence and strong economic ties. [59] Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan wih former president Vladimir Putin Following the 1990 Iraq invasion of Kuwait, the UAE has maintained extensive relations with its Western allies for security and cooperation towards increasing interoperability of its defense forces and for liberating Kuwait, France and the USA have played the most strategically significant roles with defense cooperation agreements and military material provision[60]. Most recently, these relations culminated in a joint nuclear deal for the US to supply the UAE with nuclear technology, expertise and fuel. Commercially, the UK and Germany are the UAE’s largest export markets and bi-lateral relations have long been close as a large number of their nationals reside in the UAE.[61] [62] Diplomatic relations between UAE and Japan were established as early as UAE's independence in December 1971.[63] The two countries had always enjoyed friendly ties and trade between each other, exports from UAE to Japan include crude oil and natural gas and imports from Japan to UAE include Cars and Electric items.[63] Foreign Aid The UAE has continuously been a major contributor of emergency relief to regions affected by conflict and natural disasters in the developing world.[64] The main UAE governmental agency for foreign aid is the Abu Dhabi Fund for Development (ADFD) which was established in 1971. Since its establishment, the ADFD has provided over Dh12.6 billion (US$3.45 billion) in soft loans and grants to countries mainly in Africa. [65] Since 1971, these have accounted for a further Dh10 billion (US$2.72 billion), bringing the total amount of the loans, grants and investments provided by the fund or the Abu Dhabi government, and managed by the fund, to around Dh24 billion (US$6.54 billion), covering 258 different projects in a total of 52 countries.[66] In November 2008, the Abu Dhabi Fund announced a long term loan of around US$278 million for rehabilitation of agricultural land in the state of Uzbekistan.[67] Between 1994 to mid-2008, for example, around Dh15.4 billion (US$4.2 billion) has been provided for the Palestinians, including, most recently, US$300 million pledged at a donor conference in Paris and an annual commitment of US$43 million to support the Palestine National Authority.[68] The UAE has also used the Red Crescent authority and charities such as Dubai Cares and Noor Dubai to donate aid to foreign countries as well. Geography Main article: Geography of the United Arab Emirates Geography of the UAE Coastline 1,318 km km Bordering countries Saudi Arabia, and Oman The landscape of Sir Bani Yas Island. The United Arab Emirates is situated in Southwest Asia, bordering the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, between Oman and Saudi Arabia; it is in a strategic location along southern approaches to the Strait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for world crude oil[69]. The UAE lies between 22°50' and 26° north latitude and between 51° and 56°25' east longitude. It shares a 530-kilometer border with Saudi A view of the desert landscape on the outskirts of Dubai The mountainous region in the North Arabia on the west, south, and southeast, and a 450-kilometer border with Oman on the southeast and northeast. The land border with Qatar in the Khawr al Udayd area is about nineteen kilometers in the northwest, however it is a source of ongoing dispute[70] . The total area of the UAE is approximately 77,700 square kilometers. The country's exact size is unknown because of disputed claims to several islands in the Persian Gulf, because of the lack of precise information on the size of many of these islands, and because most of its land boundaries, especially with Saudi Arabia, remain undemarcated. The largest emirate, Abu Dhabi, accounts for 87 percent of the UAE's total area (67,340 square kilometers