uring his campaigns in the 1st century BC. At that time, it was considered an unimportant outpost, overshadowed by Apollonia and Epidamnos.[26] Route of the Via Egnatia In the 4th century BC, the Illyrian king Bardyllis united several Illyrian tribes and engaged in conflict with Macedon, but was defeated. Bardyllis was succeeded by Grabos,[27] then by Bardyllis II,[28] and then by Cleitus the Illyrian,[28] who was defeated by Alexander the Great. Later on, in 229 BC, Queen Teuta[29] of the Ardiaei clashed with Romans, initiating this way the Illyrian Wars, which brought the independence of all of Illyria to an end in 168 B.C., when King Gentius was defeated by a Roman army. The lands comprising modern-day Albania were incorporated into the Roman empire as part of the province of Illyricum above the river Drin, and Roman Macedonia (specifically as Epirus Nova) below it. The western part of the Via Egnatia ran inside modern Albania, ending at Dyrrachium. Illyricum was later divided into the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia. When the Roman Empire was divided into East and West in 395, the territories of modern Albania became part of the Byzantine Empire. Beginning in the first decades of Byzantine rule (until 461), the region suffered devastating raids by Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths. In the 6th and 7th centuries, the region was overrun by the Slavs. The territory of Albania would remain under Byzantine and Bulgarian rule until the 14th century, when the Ottoman Turks began to make incursions into the Empire. The Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453, and by 1460 most former Byzantine territories were in the hands of the Turks. Medieval era The new administrative system of the themes, or military provinces created by the Byzantine Empire, contributed to the eventual rise of feudalism in Albania, as peasant soldiers who served military lords became serfs on their landed estates. Among the leading families of the Albanian feudal nobility were the Thopia, Shpata, Muzaka, Dukagjini and Kastrioti. The first three of these rose to become rulers of principalities that were practically independent from Byzantium. Durrės in 1573 Ottoman era In the Middle Ages, the name Arberia (see Origin and history of the name Albania) began to be increasingly applied to the region now comprising the nation of Albania. Beginning with late-14th century the Ottoman Turks expanded their empire from Anatolia to the Balkans. By the 15th century, the Turks had brought under subjection nearly all of the Balkan Peninsula. The Albanians' resistance to the Turks in the mid-15th century won them acclaim all over Christian Europe. Albania became a symbol of resistance to the Ottoman Turks.[30] One of the most successful resistances against the invading Ottomans, was led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg from 1443 to 1468. Under a red flag bearing Skanderbeg's heraldic emblem, an Albanian force of about 30,000 men held off Ottoman campaigns against their lands for twenty-four years. The leadership of Skanderbeg was invincible, and even Mehmet II, the Conqueror, was ambushed by an Albanian guerilla party at Kruja in 1466. Skanderbeg then re-embraced Roman Catholicism and declared a holy war against the Turks.[30] Thrice the Albanians overcame sieges of Krujė (see Siege of Krujė). Skanderbeg was unable to receive any help from the new crusade promised by the popes. He abandoned Christianity and died in 1468 leaving no worthy successor. After the death of Skanderbeg, resistance continued until 1478, although with only moderate success. The loyalties and alliances created and nurtured by Skanderbeg faltered and fell apart, and the Ottomans conquered the territory of Albania shortly after the fall of Kruje's castle. Albania then became part of the Ottoman Empire. Engraving of an Albanian assault on a Turkish camp Portrait of Skanderbeg in the Uffizi, Florence During the era of Ottoman rule many Albanians fled to neighbouring Italy, mostly to Calabria and Sicily, giving rise to the modern Arbėreshė communities. The majority of the remaining Albanian population converted to Islam during this time. The main reason for such a large Muslim impact in Albania, exchanging the Christian religion for Islam was in order to gain considerable advantages in the Ottoman bureaucracy and army. Many Turkish historical figures were in fact of Albanian origin, and one of them rose to become the first Pasha of Egypt; Mehmet Ali Pasha.[31] On the other hand there were numerous uprisings beginning with the son and nephew of Skanderbeg in 1500 AD, during the Ottoman–Venetian Wars, Ottoman–Habsburg wars, against Tanzimat reforms and during National Renaissance of Albania (1831–1912). This period also saw the rising of semi-autonomous Albanian ruled Pashaliks and Albanians were also an important part of the Ottoman army and Ottoman administration like the case of Köprülü family. Albania would remain a part of the Ottoman Empire as the provinces of Shkodra, Manastir and Yanya until 1912. 20th century 1913 to 1928 After five hundred years of Ottoman domination, an independent Albania was proclaimed on the 28 November 1912. The initial sparks of the first Balkan War in 1912 were ignited by the Albanian uprising between 1908 and 1910 [32] which were directed at opposing the Young Turk policies of consolidation of the Ottoman Empire. Following the eventual weakening of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria declared war and sought to aggrandize their respective boundaries on the remaining territories of the Empire. Albania was thus invaded by Serbia in the north and Greece in the south, restricting the country to only a patch of land around the southern coastal city of Vlora. In 1912 Albania, still under foreign occupation declared its independence and with the aid of Austria-Hungary, the Great Powers drew its present borders leaving more than half of the Albanian population outside the new country. The border between Albania and its neighbours was delineated in 1913 following the dissolution of most of the Ottoman Empire's territories in the Balkans. The delineation of the new state's borders left a significant number of Albanian communities outside Albania. This population was largely divided between Montenegro and Serbia (which then included what is now the Republic of Macedonia). A substantial number of Albanians thus found themselves under Serbian rule. At the same time, an uprising in the country's south by local Greeks, led to the formation of an autonomous region inside its borders (1914). After a period of political instability caused during the World War I, the country adopted a republican form of government in 1920.[33] 1928 to 1946 Ahmet Muhtar Bey Zogolli Starting in 1928, but especially during the Great Depression, the government of King Zog, which brought law and order to the country, began to cede Albania's sovereignty to Italy. Despite some strong resistance, especially at Durrės, Italy invaded Albania on 7 April 1939 and took control of the country, with the Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini proclaiming Italy's figurehead King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy as King of Albania. The nation thus became one of the first to be occupied by the Axis Powers in World War II.[34] As Hitler began his aggressions, Mussolini decided to occupy Albania as a means to compete with Hitler's territorial gains. Mussolini and the Italian Fascists saw Albania as a historical part of the Roman Empire, and the occupation was intended to fulfill Mussolini's dream of creating an Italian Empire. During the Italian occupation, Albania's population was subject to a policy of forced Italianisation by the kingdom's Italian governors, in which the use of the Albanian language was discouraged in schools while the Italian language was promoted. At the same time, the colonization of Albania by Italians was encouraged. Mussolini, in October 1940, used his Albanian base to launch an attack on Greece, which led to the defeat of the Italian forces and the Greek occupation of Southern Albania in what was seen by the Greeks as the liberation of Northern Epirus. While preparing for the Invasion of Russia, Hitler decided to attack Greece in December 1940 to prevent a British attack on his southern flank.[35] During World War II, the Party of Labour was created on 8 November 1941. With the intention of organizing a partisan resistance, they called a general conference in Pezė on 16 September 1942 where the Albanian National Liberation Front was set up. The Front included nationalist groups, but it was dominated by communist partisans. In December 1942, more Albanian nationalist groups were organized under Visar Kola. Albanians fought against the Italians while, during Nazi German occupation, Balli Kombėtar allied itself with the Germans and clashed with Albanian communists, which continued their fight against Germans and Balli Kombėtar at the same time. With the collapse of the Mussolini government in line with the Allied invasion of Italy, Germany occupied Albania in September 1943, dropping paratroopers into Tirana before the Albanian guerrillas could take the capital. The German Army soon drove the guerrillas into the hills and to the south. The Nazi German government subsequently announced it would recognize the independence of a neutral Albania and set about organizing a new government, police and armed forces. Many Balli Kombėtar units cooperated with the Germans against the communists and several Balli Kombėtar leaders held positions in the German-sponsored regime. The partisans entirely liberated Albania from German occupation on 28 November 1944. The Albanian partisans also liberated Kosovo, part of Montenegro, and southern Bosnia and Herzegovina. By November 1944, they had thrown out the Germans, one of the few East European nations to do so without any assistance from Soviet troops. Enver Hoxha became the leader of the country by virtue of his position as Secretary General of the Albanian Communist Party. Albania was one of the European countries occupied by the Axis powers that ended World War II with a larger Jewish population than before the war.[36][37][38][39] Some 1,200 Jewish residents and refugees from other Balkan countries were hidden by Albanian families during World War II, according to official records.[40] Communist state Main article: Socialist People's Republic of Albania The former Enver Hoxha Museum in Tirana Tirana's Skanderbeg Square in 1988 Albania became an ally of the Soviet Union, but this came to an end in 1960 over the advent of de-Stalinization. A strong political alliance with China followed, leading to several billion dollars in aid, which was curtailed after 1974. China cut off aid in 1978 when Albania attacked its policies after the death of the Chinese ruler Mao Zedong. Large-scale purges of officials occurred during the 1970s. Enver Hoxha, a dictator who ruled Albania for four decades with an iron fist, died on 11 April 1985. Eventually the new regime introduced some liberalization, and granting the freedom to travel abroad in 1990. The new government made efforts to improve ties with the outside world. The elections of March 1991 left the former Communists in power, but a general strike and urban opposition led to the formation of a coalition cabinet that included non-Communists.[41] Recent history - 1992 to present Main article: History of post-Communist Albania Further information: Timeline of Albanian history from 1994 Albania's former Communists were routed in elections March 1992, causing economic collapse and social unrest. The blood feud has returned in rural areas after more than 40 years of being abolished by Albanian communists,[42] with nearly 10,000 Albanians being killed due to blood feuds since 1991.[43] Sali Berisha was elected as the first non-Communist president since World War II. The next crisis occurred in 1997, during his presidency, as riots ravaged the country. The state institutions collapsed and an EU military mission led by Italy was sent to stabilize the country. In summer 1997, Berisha was defeated in elections, winning just 25 seats out of a total of 156. His return to power in the elections of 3 July 2005 ended eight years of Socialist Party rule. In 2009, Albania – along with Croatia – joined NATO. Government, politics and armed forces Main article: Politics of Albania Albania This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Albania Constitution President Bamir Topi Prime Minister Sali Berisha Cabinet of Albania Parliament Political parties Politicians Elections: 2005, 2009 Counties Districts Foreign relations Other countries · Atlas Politics portal view • talk • edit Albania's Prime Minister Sali Berisha with then U.S. President George W. Bush in Tirana, June 2007. The Albanian republic is a parliamentary democracy established under a constitution renewed in 1998. Elections are now held every four years to a unicameral 140-seat chamber, the People's Assembly. In June 2002, a compromise candidate, Alfred Moisiu, former Army General, was elected to succeed President Rexhep Meidani. Parliamentary elections in July 2005 brought Sali Berisha, as leader of the Democratic Party, back to power. The Euro-Atlantic integration of Albania has been the ultimate goal of the post-communist governments. Albania's EU membership bid has been set as a priority by the European Commission. Albania, along with Croatia, received in 3 April 2008 an invitation to join NATO. Albania and Croatia joined NATO on 1 April 2009 becoming the 27th and 28th members of the alliance.[44] The workforce of Albania has continued to migrate to Greece, Italy, Germany, other parts of Europe, and North America. However, the migration flux is slowly decreasing, as more and more opportunities are emerging in Albania itself as its economy steadily develops. Executive branch The head of state in Albania is the President of the Republic. The President is elected to a 5-year term by the Assembly of the Republic of Albania by secret ballot, requiring a 50%+1 majority of the votes of all deputies. The next election will run in the year 2012. The current President of the Republic is Bamir Topi. The President has the power to guarantee observation of the constitution and all laws, act as commander in chief of the armed forces, exercise the duties of the Assembly of the Republic of Albania when the Assembly is not in session, and appoint the Chairman of the Council of Ministers (prime minister). Executive power rests with the Council of Ministers (cabinet). The Chairman of the Council (prime minister) is appointed by the president; ministers are nominated by the president on the basis of the prime minister's recommendation. The People's Assembly must give final approval of the composition of the Council. The Council is responsible for carrying out both foreign and domestic policies. It directs and controls the activities of the ministries and other state organs. President Bamir Topi 20 July 2007 Prime Minister Sali Berisha PD 9 September 2009 Legislative branch The Assembly of the Republic of Albania (Kuvendi i Republikės sė Shqipėrisė) is the lawmaking body in Albania. There are 140 deputies in the Assembly, which are elected through a party-list proportional representation system. The President of the Assembly (or Speaker) has two deputies and chairs the Assembly. There are 15 permanent commissions, or committees. Parliamentary elections are held at least every four years. The Assembly has the power to decide the direction of domestic and foreign policy; approve or amend the constitution; declare war on another state; ratify or annul international treaties; elect the President of the Republic, the Supreme Court and the Attorney General and his or her deputies; and control the activity of state radio and television, state news agency and other official information media. Armed forces Main article: Military of Albania See also: Albanian Air Force, Albanian Naval Defense Forces, Albanian Joint Forces Command, and Albanian Logistic Support Command Albanian Navy warship Iliria The Albanian Armed Forces (Forcat e Armatosura tė Shqipėrisė) first formed after independence in 1912. Albania reduced the number of active troops from a 1988 number of 65,000[45] to a 2009 number of 14,500[46] with a small fleet of aircraft and sea vessels. In the 1990s, the country scrapped enormous amount of obsolete hardware, such as tanks and SAM systems of Chinese manufacture. Today it is made up of the General Staff Headquarters, the Albanian Joint Forces Command, the Albanian Support Command and the Albanian Training and Doctrine Command. One of the most important conditions to fulfill due to NATO integration, was the increasing of the military budget. Military spending accounted for about 2.7% of GDP in 2008. Since February 2008, Albania participates officially in NATO's Operation Active Endeavor in the Mediterranean Sea[47] and received a NATO membership invitation on 3 April 2008.[48] Albania became a full member of NATO on 1 April 2009. Geography Main article: Geography of Albania Satellite image of Albania. Coastline in Himarė Ksamil, little islands Albania has a total area of 28,748 square kilometers. Its coastline is 362 kilometers long and extends along the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The lowlands of the west face the Adriatic Sea. The 70% of the country that is mountainous is rugged and often inaccessible from the outside. The highest mountain is Korab situated in the district of Dibra, reaching up to 2,753 metres (9,030 ft). The country has a continental climate at its high altitude regions with cold winters and hot summers. Besides the capital city of Tirana, which has 800,000 inhabitants, the principal cities are Durrės, Korēė, Elbasan, Shkodėr, Gjirokastėr, Vlorė and Kukės. In Albanian grammar, a word can have indefinite and definite forms, and this also applies to city names: both Tiranė and Tirana, Shkodėr and Shkodra are used. The three largest and deepest tectonic lakes of the Balkan Peninsula are partly located in Albania. Lake Shkodėr in the country's northwest has a surface which can vary between 370 km2 (140 sq mi) and 530 km2, out of which one third belongs to Albania and rest to Montenegro. The Albanian shoreline of the lake is 57 km (35 mi). Ohrid Lake is situated in the country's southeast and is shared between Albania and Republic of Macedonia. It has a maximal depth of 289 meters and a variety of unique flora and fauna can be found there, including “living fossils” and many endemic species. Because of its natural and historical value, Ohrid Lake is under the protection of UNESCO. Over a third of the territory of Albania - about 10,000 square kilometers (2.5 million acres) - is forested and the country was very rich in flora. About 3.000 different species of plants grow in Albania, many of which are used for medicinal purposes. Phytogeographically, Albania belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the Adriatic and East Mediterranean provinces of the Mediterranean Region and the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature and Digital Map of European Ecological Regions by the European Environment Agency, the territory of Albania can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Illyrian deciduous forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests and Dinaric Alpine mixed forests. The forests are home to a wide range of mammals, including wolves, bears, wild boars and chamois. Lynx, wildcats, pine martens and polecats are rare, but survive in some parts of the country. Climate Coastline near Sarandė Albanian landscape Korab chains Sarandė Bay With its coastline facing the Adriatic and Ionian seas, its hi