nto contact with the Varangians, a band of warriors consisting of Scandinavians and Slavs from the Baltics.[16] Though defeated and briefly exiled by the local population, the Varangians were later asked to return[16] and helped to form a polity—commonly referred to as the Kievan Rus'—in exchange for tribute. The Kievan Rus' state began in about 862 around the city of Kiev[17] or alternatively around the present-day city of Novgorod,[17] Upon the death of Kievan Rus' ruler, Prince Yaroslav the Wise, the state split into independent principalities.[18] These Ruthenian principalities were badly affected by a Mongol invasion in the 13th century, and many were later incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[19] Of the principalities held by the Duchy, nine were settled by ancestors of the Belarusian people.[20] During this time, the Duchy was involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side of Poland against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410; the joint victory allowed the Duchy to control the northwestern border lands of Eastern Europe.[21] On 2 February 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers.[22] This union set in motion the developments that eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, created in 1569. The Russians, led by Tsar Ivan the III, began military conquests in 1486 in an attempt to reunite the Kievan Rus' lands, specifically the missing Belarus and Ukraine.[23] The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795, and the commonwealth was partitioned by Imperial Russia, Prussia, and Austria, dividing Belarus.[24] Belarusian territories were acquired by the Russian Empire during the reign of Catherine II[25] and held until their occupation by Germany during World War I.[26] Soviet Russia and Pilsudski's Poland dividing Belarus During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Belarus first declared independence on 25 March 1918, forming the Belarusian People's Republic. The Germans supported the BPR, which lasted for about ten months.[27] Soon after the Germans were defeated, the BPR fell under the influence of the Bolsheviks and the Red Army and became the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1919.[27] After Russian occupation of eastern and northern Lithuania, it was merged into the Lithuanian-Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Byelorussian lands were then split between Poland and the Soviets after the Polish-Soviet War ended in 1921, and the recreated Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922.[27] At the same time Western Belarus remained occupied by Poland.[28][29][29] A set of agricultural reforms, culminating in the Belarusian phase of Soviet collectivization, began in the 1920s. A process of rapid industrialization was undertaken during the 1930s, following the model of Soviet five-year plans. Soviet partisan fighters behind German front lines in Belarus in 1943 In 1939, West Belarus, the territory of modern Belarus that Poland had acquired from the Soviets pursuant to Treaty of Riga two decades earlier, was reunited with Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.[30][31][32][33][34][35]. The area was a part of the territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union as a result of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939.[36] The decision was made by the Soviet controlled Belarusian People Council on October 28, 1939 in Bialystok[35] Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 – the Fortress of Brest in western Belarus receiving one of the fiercest of the war's opening blows, with its notable defense in 1941 coming to be remembered as an act of heroism in countering the German aggression. Statistically, Byelorussia was the hardest hit Soviet Republic in the war and remained in Nazi hands until 1944. During that time, Germany destroyed 209 out of 290 cities in the republic, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings.[6] Casualties were estimated to between two and three million (about a quarter to one-third of the total population), while the Jewish population of Byelorussia was devastated during the Holocaust and never recovered.[6][37] The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971.[37] After the war ended, Byelorussia was officially among the 51 founding countries of the United Nations Charter in 1945. Intense post-war reconstruction was initiated promptly. During this time, the Byelorussian SSR became a major center of manufacturing in the western region of the USSR, increasing jobs and bringing an influx of ethnic Russians into the republic.[38] The borders of Byelorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn to a point known as the Curzon Line.[36] Map of the Byelorussian SSR, 1940 Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietization to isolate the Byelorussian SSR from Western influences.[37] This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government. The official use of the Belarusian language and other cultural aspects were limited by Moscow. After Stalin died in 1953, successor Nikita Khrushchev continued this program, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian, the faster we shall build communism."[37] The Byelorussian SSR was significantly exposed to nuclear fallout from the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant in neighboring Ukrainian SSR in 1986.[39] In June 1988 at the rural site of Kurapaty near Minsk, archaeologist Zianon Pazniak, the leader of Christian Conservative Party of the BPF, discovered mass graves which contained about 250,000 bodies of victims executed in 1937-1941.[39] Some nationalists contend that this discovery is proof that the Soviet government was trying to erase the Belarusian people, causing Belarusian nationalists to seek independence.[40] Two years later, in March 1990, elections for seats in the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian SSR took place. Though the pro-independence Belarusian Popular Front took only 10% of the seats, the populace was content with the selection of the delegates.[41] Belarus declared itself sovereign on 27 July 1990, by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic. With the support of the Communist Party, the country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991.[41] Stanislav Shushkevich, the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, met with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine on 8 December 1991, in Belavezhskaya Pushcha to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.[41] A national constitution was adopted in March 1994, in which the functions of prime minister were given to the president. Two-round elections for the presidency (24 June 1994 and 10 July 1994)[42] resulted in the politically unknown Alexander Lukashenko winning more than 45% of the vote in the first round and 80%[41] in the second round, beating Vyacheslav Kebich who got 14%. Lukashenko was reelected in 2001 and in 2006. Politics Main article: Politics of Belarus Victory Square, Minsk Belarus is a presidential republic, governed by a president and the National Assembly. In accordance with the constitution, the president is elected once every five years. The National Assembly is a bicameral parliament comprising the 110-member House of Representatives (the lower house) and the 64-member Council of the Republic (the upper house). The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the prime minister, make constitutional amendments, call for a vote of confidence on the prime minister, and make suggestions on foreign and domestic policy. The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president, and accept or reject the bills passed by the House of Representatives. Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the Constitution of Belarus.[43] Since 1994, Alexander Lukashenko has been the president of Belarus. The government includes a Council of Ministers, headed by the prime minister. The members of this council need not be members of the legislature and are appointed by the president. The judiciary comprises the Supreme Court and specialized courts such as the Constitutional Court, which deals with specific issues related to constitutional and business law. The judges of national courts are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic. For criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the Supreme Court. The Belarusian Constitution forbids the use of special extrajudicial courts.[43] House of Government in Minsk, with a statue of Vladimir Lenin in the foreground Residence of the President of the Republic of Belarus, ul. Karla Marxa 38, Minsk, Belarus As of 2007, 98 of the 110 members of the House of Representatives are not affiliated with any political party and of the remaining twelve members, eight belong to the Communist Party of Belarus, three to the Agrarian Party of Belarus, and one to the Liberal Democratic Party of Belarus. Most of the non-partisans represent a wide scope of social organizations such as workers' collectives, public associations and civil society organizations. Neither the pro-Lukashenko parties, such as the Belarusian Socialist Sporting Party and the Republican Party of Labor and Justice, nor the People's Coalition 5 Plus opposition parties, such as the Belarusian People's Front and the United Civil Party of Belarus, won any seats in the 2004 elections. Groups such as the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) declared the election "un-free" because of the opposition parties' poor results and media bias in favor of the government.[44] In the country's 2006 presidential election, Lukashenko was opposed by Alaksandar Milinkievic, a candidate representing a coalition of opposition parties, and by Alaksandar Kazulin of the Social Democrats. Kazulin was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding the All Belarusian People's Assembly. Lukashenko won the election with 80% of the vote, but the OSCE and other organizations called the election unfair.[45] Lukashenko has described himself as having an "authoritarian ruling style."[46] Western countries have described Belarus under Lukashenko as a dictatorship; the government has accused the same Western powers of trying to oust Lukashenko.[47] The Council of Europe has barred Belarus from membership since 1997 for undemocratic voting and election irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections.[48] The Belarusian government is also criticized for human rights violations and its actions against non-governmental organizations, independent journalists, national minorities, and opposition politicians.[49][50] Belarus is the only nation in Europe that retains the death penalty for certain crimes during times of peace and war.[51] The constitution was also changed by Lukashenko to where the term limits for the presidency were lifted. In testimony to the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, former United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice labeled Belarus among the six nations of the "outposts of tyranny."[52] In response, the Belarusian government called the assessment "quite far from reality."[53] Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of Belarus and Armed Forces of Belarus Alexander Lukashenko (center) standing with Vladimir Putin (then President of Russia) and Leonid Kuchma (former President of Ukraine) at Slavianski Bazaar in Vitebsk in 2001 Belarus and Russia have been close trading partners and diplomatic allies since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Belarus is dependent on Russia for imports of raw materials and for its export market.[54] The Union of Russia and Belarus, a supranational confederation, was established in a 1996–99 series of treaties that called for monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defense policy.[54] Although the future of the Union was in doubt because of Belarus's repeated delays of monetary union, the lack of a referendum date for the draft constitution, and a 2006–07 dispute about petroleum trade.[54] On 11 December 2007, reports emerged that a framework for the new state was discussed between both countries.[55] On 27 May 2008, Belarusian President Lukashenko said that he had named Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin the "prime minister" of the Russia-Belarus alliance. The meaning of the move was not immediately clear; however, there was speculation that Putin might become President of a unified state of Russia and Belarus after stepping down as Russian president in May 2008, although this has not happened.[56] Belarus was a founding member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); however, recently other CIS members have questioned the effectiveness of the organization.[57] Belarus has trade agreements with several European Union member states (despite other member states' travel ban on Lukashenko and top officials),[58] as well as with its neighbors Lithuania, Poland and Latvia (all of whom are EU members).[59] Bilateral relations with the United States are strained because the U.S. Department of State supports various anti-Lukashenko NGOs and because the Belarusian government has made it harder for US-based organizations to operate within the country.[60] The 2004 US Belarus Democracy Act continued this trend, authorizing funding for what the US considers to be pro-democracy Belarusian NGOs and forbidding loans to the Belarusian government except for humanitarian purposes.[61] Despite this, the two nations cooperate on intellectual property protection, prevention of human trafficking and technology crime, and disaster relief.[62] Belarus has increased cooperation with China, strengthened by the visit of President Lukashenko to China in October 2005.[63] Belarus has strong ties with Syria,[64] which President Lukashenko considers a key partner in the Middle East.[65] In addition to the CIS, Belarus has membership in the Eurasian Economic Community and the Collective Security Treaty Organization.[59] Belarus has been a member of the international Non-Aligned Movement since 1998[66] and a member of the United Nations since its founding in 1945.[67] The Armed Forces of Belarus have three branches: the Army, the Air Force, and the Ministry of Defense joint staff. Colonel-General Leonid Maltsev heads the Ministry of Defense,[68] and Alexander Lukashenko (as president) serves as Commander-in-Chief.[69] The Armed Forces were formed in 1992 using parts of the former Soviet Armed Forces on the new republic's territory. The transformation of the ex-Soviet forces into the Armed Forces of Belarus, which was completed in 1997, reduced the number of its soldiers by 30,000 and restructured its leadership and military formations.[70] Most of Belarus's service members are conscripts, who serve for 12 months if they have higher education or 18 months if they do not.[71] However, demographic decreases in the Belarusians of conscription age have increased the importance of contract soldiers, who numbered 12,000 as of 2001.[72] In 2005, about 1.4% of Belarus's gross domestic product was devoted to military expenditures.[73] Belarus has not expressed a desire to join NATO but has participated in the Individual Partnership Program since 1997.[74] Provinces and districts Main article: Administrative divisions of Belarus Provinces of Belarus Belarus is divided into six voblasts (voblasc), or provinces, which are named after the cities that serve as their administrative centers.[75] Each voblast has a provincial legislative authority, called an oblsovet (oblast council), which is elected by the voblast's residents, and a provincial executive authority called a voblast administration, whose leader is appointed by the president.[76] Voblasts are further subdivided into raions (commonly translated as districts or regions).[75] As with voblasts, each raion has its own legislative authority (raisovet, or raion council) elected by its residents, and an executive authority (raion administration) appointed by higher executive powers. As of 2002, there are six voblasts, 118 raions, 102 towns and 108 urbanized settlements.[77] Minsk is given a special status, due to the city serving as the national capital. Minsk City is run by an executive committee and granted a charter of self-rule by the national government.[78] Voblasts (with administrative centers): Brest Voblast (Brest) Gomel Voblast (Gomel) Grodno Voblast (Grodno) Mogilev Voblast (Mogilev) Minsk Voblast (Minsk) Vitebsk Voblast (Vitebsk) Special administrative district: Minsk City Geography Main article: Geography of Belarus Strusta Lake in the Vitebsk Province. Belarus is landlocked, relatively flat, and contains large tracts of marshy land.[79] According to a 2005 estimate by the United Nations, 40% of Belarus is covered by forests.[80] Many streams and 11,000 lakes are found in Belarus.[79] Three major rivers run through the country: the Neman, the Pripyat, and the Dnepr. The Neman flows westward towards the Baltic sea and the Pripyat flows eastward to the Dnepr; the Dnepr flows southward towards the Black Sea.[81] Belarus's highest point is Dzyarzhynskaya Hara (Dzyarzhynsk Hill) at 345 metres (1,132 ft), and its lowest point is on the Neman River at 90 metres (295 ft).[79] The average elevation of Belarus is 525 feet (160 m) above sea level.[82] The climate ranges from harsh winters, with average January temperatures at -6 °C (21.2 °F), to cool and moist summers with an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F).[83] Belarus has an average annual rainfall of 550 to 700 mm (21.7 to 27.6 in).[83] The country experiences a yearly transition from a continental climate to a maritime climate.[79] Horses grazing in Minsk Province. Belarus's natural resources include peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas, granite, dolomite (limestone), marl, chalk, sand, gravel, and clay.[79] About 70% of the radiation from neighboring Ukraine's 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster entered Belarusian territory, and as of 2005 about a fifth of Belarusian land (principally farmland and forests in the southeastern provinces) continues to be affected by radiation fallout.[84] The United Nations and other agencies have aimed to reduce the level of radiation in affected areas, especially through the use of caesium binders and rapeseed cultivation, which are meant to decrease soil levels of caesium-137.[85][86] Belarus is bordered by Latvia on the north, Lithuania to the northwest, Poland to the west, Russia to the north and east and Ukraine to the south. Treaties in 1995 and 1996 demarcated Belarus's borders with Latvia and Lithuania, but Belarus failed to ratify a 1997 treaty establishing the Belarus-Ukraine border.[87] Belarus and Lithuania ratified final border demarcation documents in February 2007.[88] Economy Main article: Economy of Belarus Most of the Belarusian economy remains state-controlled[54], and has been described as "Soviet-style."[89] Thus, 51.2% of Belarusians are employed by state-controlled companies, 47.4% are employed by private Belarusian companies (of which 5.7% are partially foreign-owned), and 1.4% are employed by foreign companies.[90] The country relies on imports such as oil from Russia.[91][92] Important agricultural products include potatoes and cattle byproducts, including meat.[93] As of 1994, the biggest exports from Belarus were heavy machinery (especially tractors), agricultural p