ttles in the northern, northeastern, and southern regions.[39] The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824[40] and independence was recognized by Portugal on 29 August 1825.[41] Emperor Dom Pedro II. Due to "the length of government and the transformations that occurred, no other head of State has ever had a deeper impact on the country’s history".[42] The first Brazilian constitution was promulgated on 25 March 1824, after its acceptance by the municipal councils across the country.[43][44][45][46] Pedro I abdicated on 7 April 1831 and went to Europe to reclaim his daughter’s crown, leaving behind his five year old son and heir, who was to become Dom Pedro II.[47] As the new emperor could not exert his constitutional prerogatives until he reached maturity, a regency was created.[48] Disputes between political factions led to rebellions and an unstable, almost anarchical, regency.[49] The rebellious factions, however, were not in revolt against the monarchy,[50][51] even though some declared the secession of the provinces as independent republics, but only so long as Pedro II was a minor.[52] Because of this, Pedro II was prematurely declared of age and "Brazil was to enjoy nearly half a century of internal peace and rapid material progress."[53] Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II (the Platine War, the Uruguayan War and the War of the Triple Alliance)[54] and witnessed the consolidation of representative democracy, mainly due to successive elections and unrestricted freedom of the press.[55] Most importantly, slavery was extinguished after a slow but steady process that began with the end of the international traffic in slaves in 1850[56] and ended with the complete abolition of slavery in 1888.[57] The slave population had been in decline since Brazil's independence: in 1823, 29% of the Brazilian population were slaves but by 1887 this had fallen to 5%.[58] When the monarchy was overthrown on 15 November 1889[59] there was little desire in Brazil to change the form of government[60] and Pedro II was at the height of his popularity among his subjects.[61][62] However, he "bore prime, perhaps sole, responsibility for his own overthrow."[63] After the death of his two sons, Pedro believed that "the imperial regime was destined to end with him."[64] He cared little for the regime's fate[65][66] and so neither did anything, nor allowed anyone else to do anything, to prevent the military coup, backed by former slave owners who resented the abolition of slavery.[67][68][69] Old republic and Vargas era Main articles: República Velha, Estado Novo (Brazil), and Brazilian Second Republic The Brazilian coup d'état of 1930 raised Getúlio Vargas (center with military uniform but no hat) to power. He would rule the country for fifteen years. The "early republican government was little more than a military dictatorship. The army dominated affairs both at Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power".[59] In 1894 the republican civilians rose to power, opening a "prolonged cycle of civil war, financial disaster, and government incompetence."[70] By 1902, the government began a return to the policies pursued during the Empire, policies that promised peace and order at home and a restoration of Brazil's prestige abroad.[70] and was successful in negotiating several treaties that expanded (with the purchase of Acre) and secured the Brazilian boundaries.[71] In the 1920s the country was plagued by several rebellions caused by young military officers.[72][73] By 1930, the regime was weakened and demoralized, which allowed the defeated presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas to lead a coup d'état and assume the presidency.[74] Vargas was supposed to assume the presidency temporarily but instead, he closed the National Congress, extinguished the Constitution, ruled with emergency powers and replaced the states' governors with his supporters.[75][76] In 1935 Communists rebelled across the country and made an unsuccessful bid for power.[77] The communist threat, however, served as an excuse for Vargas to launch another coup d'état in 1937 and Brazil became a full dictatorship.[78][79] The repression of the opposition was brutal with more than 20,000 people imprisoned, internment camps created for political prisoners in distant regions of the country, widespread torture by the government agents of repression, and censorship of the press,[80][81] Brazil remained neutral during the early years of World War II until the government declared war against the Axis powers in 1942.[82] Vargas then forced German, Japanese and Italian immigrants into concentration camps,[83] and, in 1944, sent troops to the battlefields in Italy.[84][85] With the allied victory in 1945 and the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position became unsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in a military coup.[86] Democracy was reinstated and General Eurico Gaspar Dutra was elected president and took office in 1946.[87] Vargas returned to power in 1951, this time democratically elected, but he was incapable of either governing under a democracy or of dealing with an active opposition, and he committed suicide in 1954.[88][89] Military regime and contemporary era Main articles: Military dictatorship (Brazil) and History of Brazil since 1985 Several brief interim governments succeeded after Vargas's suicide.[90] Juscelino Kubitscheck became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the political opposition that allowed him to govern without major crises.[91] The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably,[92] but his greatest achievement was the construction of the new capital city of Brasília, inaugurated in 1960.[93] His successor was Jânio Quadros, who resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office.[94] His vice-president, João Goulart, assumed the presidency, but aroused strong opposition[95] and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in a military regime.[96] The new regime was intended to be transitory[97] but it gradually closed in on itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institutional Act in 1968.[98] The repression of the dictatorship's opponents, including the communist terrorists,[99] was harsh, but not nearly as brutal as in other Latin American countries.[100] Due to the extraordinary economic growth, known as an "economic miracle", the regime reached its highest level of popularity in the years of repression.[101] The transition from Fernando Henrique Cardoso to Luís Inácio Lula da Silva revealed that Brazil had finally succeeded in achieving its long-sought political stability. General Ernesto Geisel became president in 1974 and began his project of re-democratization through a process that he said would be "slow, gradual and safe."[102][103] Geisel ended the military indiscipline that had plagued the country since 1889,[104] as well as the torture of political prisoners, censorship of the press,[105] and finally, the dictatorship itself, after he extinguished the Fifth Institutional Act.[98] However, the military regime continued, under his chosen successor General João Figueiredo, to complete the transition to full democracy,.[106] The civilians fully returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency[107] but, by the end of his term, he had become extremely unpopular due to the uncontrollable economic crisis and unusually high inflation.[108] Sarney's defeat allowed the election in 1989 of the almost unknown Fernando Collor, who was subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992.[109] Collor was succeeded by his Vice-President Itamar Franco, who appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso as Minister of Finance. Cardoso produced a highly successful Plano Real (Royal Plan)[110] that granted stability to the Brazilian economy[111] and he was elected as president in 1994 and again in 1998.[112] The peaceful transition of power to Luís Inácio Lula da Silva, who was elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006, proved that Brazil had finally succeeded in achieving its long-sought political stability.[113] Government and politics Main article: Politics of Brazil The National Congress in Brasília, the capital of Brazil. The Brazilian Federation is the "indissoluble union" of three distinct political entities: the States, the Municipalities and the Federal District.[114] The Union, the states and the Federal District, and the municipalities, are the "spheres of government". The Federation is set on five fundamental principles:[114] sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of human beings, the social values of labour and freedom of enterprise, and political pluralism. The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative, and judicial under the checks and balances system), is formally established by the Constitution.[114] The executive and legislative are organized independently in all three spheres of government, while the judiciary is organized only at the federal and state/Federal District spheres. All members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected.[115][116][117] Judges and other judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams.[115] Voting is compulsory for the literate between 18 and 70 years old and optional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 or beyond 70.[114] Together with several smaller parties, four political parties stand out: Workers' Party (PT), Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB), and Democrats (DEM). Almost all governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive. The form of government is that of a democratic republic, with a presidential system.[114] The president is both head of state and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term,[114] with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The current president is Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva who was elected on October 27, 2002,[118] and re-elected on October 29, 2006.[119] The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in government.[114] Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of law in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation's bicameral legislature, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively. Law Main articles: Law of Brazil and Crime in Brazil Interior of the Supreme Federal Tribunal. Brazilian law is based on Roman-Germanic traditions[120] and civil law concepts prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are seldom binding on other specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases. The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, which was promulgated on 5 October 1988, and is the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules.[121] As of April 2007, there have been 53 amendments. States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution.[122] Municipalities and the Federal District have "organic laws" (leis orgânicas) which act in a similar way to constitutions.[114][123] Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary and executive bodies may enact legal norms.[114] Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the Federal Constitution allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments.[114] There are also specialized military, labor, and electoral courts.[114] The highest court is the Supreme Federal Tribunal. This system has been criticised over the last few decades for the slow pace at which final decisions are issued. Lawsuits on appeal may take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings are made.[124] Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal was the first court in the world to transmit its sessions on television, and also via Youtube.[125][126] More recently, in December 2009, the Supreme Court adopted Twitter to display items on the day planner of the ministers, to inform the daily actions of the Court and the most important decisions made by them.[127] Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of Brazil and Brazilian Armed Forces States hosting a diplomatic mission of Brazil. Brazil is a political and economic leader in Latin America,[128][129] however, social and economic problems prevent it from becoming an effective global power.[130] Between World War II and 1990, both democratic and military governments sought to expand Brazil's influence in the world by pursuing a state-led industrial policy and an independent foreign policy. More recently, the country has aimed to strengthen ties with other South American countries, and engage in multilateral diplomacy through the United Nations and the Organization of American States.[131] Aircraft carrier NAE São Paulo of the Brazilian Navy. Brazil's current foreign policy is based on the country's position as: a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power.[132] In general, current Brazilian foreign policy reflects multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and nonintervention in the affairs of other countries.[133] The Brazilian Constitution also determines that the country shall seek the economic, political, social and cultural integration of the nations of Latin America.[114][134][135][136] The armed forces of Brazil consist of the Brazilian Army, the Brazilian Navy, and the Brazilian Air Force. With a total of 371,199 active personnel,[137] they comprise largest armed force in Latin America.[citation needed] The Army is responsible for land-based military operations and has 235,978 active personnel.[138] The Military Police (States' Military Police) is described as an ancillary force of the Army by the constitution, but is under the control of each state's governor.[114] The Navy is responsible for naval operations and for guarding Brazilian territorial waters. It is the oldest of the Brazilian armed forces and the only navy in Latin America to operate an aircraft carrier, the NAe São Paulo (formerly FS Foch of the French Navy).[139] The Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the Brazilian armed forces, and the largest air force in Latin America, with about 700 manned aircraft in service.[140] States and municipalities Main articles: States of Brazil and Municipalities of Brazil See also: Regions of Brazil Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean North Region Northeast Region Central-West Region Southeast Region South Region Acre Amazonas Pará Roraima Amapá Rondônia Tocantins Maranhão Bahia Piauí Ceará Rio Grande do Norte Paraíba Pernambuco Alagoas Sergipe Mato Grosso Mato Grosso do Sul Federal District Goiás Minas Gerais São Paulo Rio de Janeiro Espírito Santo Paraná Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul Argentina Bolivia Chile Colombia French Guiana Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Brazil is a federation composed of twenty-six States, one federal district (which contains the capital city, Brasília) and municipalities.[114] States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite this, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can only be voted by the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.[114] The states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and Southern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and they do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and also to define the application of federal funds in development projects. Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government.[114] Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca (county). Geography Main article: Geography of Brazil See also: List of countries and outlying territories by total area Topography map of Brazil. Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of the continent's interior,[141] sharing land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the French overseas department of French Guiana to the north. It shares a border with every country in South America except for Ecuador and Chile. It also encompasses a number of oceanic archipelagos, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.[9] Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse.[141] Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, after Russia, Canada, China and the United States, and third largest in the Americas; with a total area of 8,514,876.599 square kilometers (3,287,612 sq mi) [142], including 55,455 square kilometers (21,411 sq mi) of water.[9] It spans three time zones; from UTC-4 in the western states, to UTC-3 in the eastern states (and the official time of Brazil), and UTC-2 in the Atlantic islands.[6] Brazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between 200 metres (660 ft) and 800 metres (2,600 ft) in elevation.[143] The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country.[143] The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.[143] The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft).[143] These ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do Mar.[143] In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 3,014 metres (9,890 ft), and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.[9] Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic.[144] Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls), the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and Tapajós rivers.[144] Climate Main article: Climate of Brazil Snow in São Joaquim, Santa Catarina (South) and tropical climate in Cabedelo, Paraiba (Northeast). The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather