recaptured by warriors led by Pengiran Bendahara Sakam.[21] Brunei lost a number of territories to Spain, including the island of Luzon. A civil war was fought from 1660 to 1673. British Intervention The decline of the Bruneian Empire culminated in the 19th century, when Brunei lost much of its territory to the White Rajahs of Sarawak, resulting in its current small landmass and separation into two parts.[22] The Treaty of Protection which was negotiated by Sir Hugh Low was signed into effect on 17 September 1888. This enables Britain control over Brunei’s external affairs. This treaty was signed after Sultan Hashim, the Sultan at that time, appealed to the British to stop partitioning and annexing Brunei, as what James Brooke was doing since 1846.[23] One of the terms in the agreement included that the Sultan “could not cede or lease any territory to foreign powers without British consent.” When James Brooke later annexed the Pandaruan district, however the British did not take any action against him as they regarded James Brooke as not being a foreigner. The British also attacked Brunei on July 1846 due to disagreement of on who was the rightful Sultan.[24] Brunei was a British protectorate from 1888 to 1984.[4] British Residents were introduced in Brunei under the Supplementary Protectorate Agreement in 1906.[25] The Residents were to advise the Sultan on all matters of administration. However, the Resident assumed more executive control than the Sultan. The Residential system ended in 1959.[26] Discovery of Oil Oil was discovered in 1929 after several fruitless attempts.[27] Two men, F.F. Marriot and T.G. Cochrane smelled oil near the Seria river in late 1926.[28] They informed a geophysicist which then conducted a survey there. In 1927, gas seepages were reported in the area. Seria Well Number One (S-1) was drilled on 12 July 1928. Oil was struck at 297 meters on 5 April 1929. Seria Well Number 2 was drilled on 19 August 1929 and is still producing oil to this date.[29] Oil production increased considerably in the 1930s. In 1940, oil production was at more than six million barrels.[30] The British Malayan Petroleum Company (now Brunei Shell Petroleum Company) was formed on 22 July 1922.[31] The first offshore well was drilled in 1957.[32] Japanese Occupation Brunei was occupied by Japan from 1941 to 1945 during World War II. The Japanese landed 10,000 men at Kuala Belait on 16 December 1941. The British in Brunei were easily defeated due to their unpreparedness and the fact that they were outnumbered. After capturing Kuala Belait, the Japnese army moved on to Brunei Town (now Bandar Seri Begawan) and captured it on 22 December 1941, capturing the police headquarters there. Brunei was liberated on 10 June 1945 under Operation Oboe Six.[33][34] Post World War II After World War II, a new government was formed in Brunei under the British Military Administration (BMA). It consisted mainly of Australian officers and servicemen.[35] The administration of Brunei was handed over to the Civil Administration on 6 July 1945. The Brunei State Council was also revived that year.[36] The BMA was also tasked to revive the Bruneian economy, was extensively damaged by the Japanese during their occupation. They were also tasked with putting out the fires started on the wells of Seria, which was started by the Japanese prior to their defeat.[36] Before 1941, the Governor of the Straits Settlements based in Singapore was responsible for the duties of British High Commissioner for Brunei, Sarawak, and North Borneo (now Sabah).[37] The first British High Commissioner for Brunei was the Governor of Sarawak, Sir Charles Ardon Clarke. The Barisan Pemuda (“Youth Front”) (abbreviated as BARIP) was the first political party to be formed in Brunei. It was formed on 12 April 1946. The aims of the party were to “preserve the sovereignty of the Sultan and the country, and to defend the rights of the Malays.”[38] BARIP also contributed to the formation of the country’s National Anthem. The party was dissolved in 1948 due to inactivity. In 1959, a new constitution was written declaring Brunei a self-governing state, while its foreign affairs, security, and defense remained the responsibility of the United Kingdom.[8] There was a small rebellion against the monarchy in 1962, which was suppressed with help from the United Kingdom. This event became known as the Brunei Revolt and was partly responsible for the failure to create the North Borneo Federation. The rebellion partially affected Brunei's decision to opt out of the Malaysian Federation.[8] Brunei gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984.[8] The official National Day, which celebrates the country's independence, however, is held on 23 February due to tradition. Writing of the Constitution In July 1953, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III formed a seven-member committee named Tujuh Serangkai to find out the citizen’s views regarding a written constitution for Brunei. In May 1954, a meeting attended by the Sultan, the Resident and the High Commissioner was held to discuss the findings the committee. In March 1959 Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III led a delegation to London to discuss the proposed Constitution.[39] The British delegation was led by Sir Alan Lennox-Boyd who was the Secretary of State for the Colonies. The British Government later accepted the draft constitution. On 29 September 1959, the Constitution Agreement was signed in Bandar Seri Begawan. The agreement was signed by Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III and Sir Robert Scott, the Commissioner-General for Southeast Asia. Some of the points of the constitution were:[40] The Sultan was made the Supreme Head of State. Brunei was responsible for its internal administration. The British Government was now only responsible for foreign and defence affairs only The post of Resident was abolished and replaced by a British High Commissioner. Five councils were also set up:[41] The Executive Council The Legislative Council of Brunei The Privy Council The Council Of Succession The State Religious Council The National Development Plans A series of National Development Plans were initiated by the 28th Sultan of Brunei, Omar Ali Saifuddien III. The First National Development Plan The First National Development plan was introduced in 1953.[42] A total sum of B$100 million was approved by the Brunei State Council for the plan. E.R. Bevington from the Colonial Office in Fiji. A $14 million Gas Plant was built under the plan. In 1954, survey and exploration work were undertaken by the Brunei Shell Petroluem on both offshore and onshore fields. By 1956, production reached 114,700 bpd. Developments on education were also made. In 1952, a writen policy on education was made.[43] Communications were also improved with new roads built and and reconstruction works at Berakas Airport being completed at 1954.[44] The Second National Development Plan The second National Development Plan was launched in 1962.[45] A major oil and gas field was discovered in 1963, with this discovery, Liquefied Natural Gas became important. Developments in the oil and gas sector has continued actively and oil production has steadily increased since then.[46] The plan also saw an increase of production of meat and eggs. The fishing industry increased its output by 25% throughout the course of the plan. The Muara Deepwater Port was also constructed under the plan. Power requirements were met and studies were made to provide electricity to rural areas.[46] Efforts were made to eradicate malaria, with the help of the World Health Organisation, under the plan. Politics and government Main article: Politics of Brunei Hassanal Bolkiah, Sultan of Brunei. Brunei has a constitutional sultanate. It has a legal system based on English common law, although Islamic shariah law supersedes this in some cases.[4] The political system in the country is governed by the constitution and the tradition of the Malay Islamic Monarchy, the concept of “Melayu Islam Beraja” (MIB). The three components of MIB cover Malay culture, Islamic religion and the political framework under the monarchy.[47] Under Brunei's 1959 constitution, His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah is the head of state with full executive authority, including emergency powers which are renewed every two years, since 1962. The Sultan's role is enshrined in the national ideology known as Melayu Islam Beraja (MIB), or Malay Muslim Monarchy. The country has been under hypothetical martial law since the Brunei Revolt of 1962.[8] Hassanal Bolkiah is also the state's Prime Minister, Finance Minister and Defence Minister.[48] The Royal family retains a venerated status within the country.[8] The country also has its own parliament. Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Brunei With its traditional ties with the United Kingdom, it became the 49th member of the Commonwealth immediately on the day of its independence on 1 January 1984.[49] As its first initiatives toward improved regional relations, Brunei joined ASEAN on 7 January 1984, becoming the sixth member.[50] It later joined the United Nations at the 39th Session of the United Nations General Assembly and became a full member on 21 September 1984 as a means to achieve recognition of its sovereignty and full independence from the world community.[51] As it is an Islamic country, Brunei Darussalam became a full member of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) in January 1984 at the Fourth Islamic Summit held in Morocco.[52] After its accession to the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1989, Brunei hosted the APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting in November 2000 and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 2002.[53] As for other economic ties, Brunei Darussalam became an original member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since it came into force in 1 January 1995,[54] and is a major player in BIMP-EAGA which was formed during the Inaugural Ministers’ Meeting in Davao, Philippines on 24 March 1994.[55] Brunei is recognized by every nation in the world. It shares a close relationship particularly with the Philippines and other nations such as Singapore. In April 2009, Brunei and the Philippines signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that seeks to strengthen the bilateral cooperation of the two countries in the fields of agriculture and farm-related trade and investments.[56] Brunei is one of many nations to lay claim to some of the disputed Spratly Islands.[57] The status of Limbang as part of Sarawak was disputed by Brunei since the area was first annexed in 1890.[58] The issue was reportedly settled in 2009, with Brunei agreeing to accept the border in exchange for Malaysia giving up claims to oil fields in Bruneian waters.[59] The government, however, denies this and says that their claim on Limbang was never dropped. [60][61] Subdivisions Main articles: Districts of Brunei and Mukims of Brunei Brunei is divided into four districts (daerah):[62] Belait Brunei and Muara Temburong Tutong The district of Temburong is physically separated from the rest of Brunei by part of Sarawak State (Malaysia). The districts are subdivided into 38 mukims.[8] Rank Mukim Population Town/Suburb/Town District 1 Sengkurong 62,400 Jerudong and Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei-Muara 2 Gadong A & Gadong B 59,610 Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei-Muara 3 Berakas A 57,500 Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei-Muara 4 Kuala Belait 35,500 Kuala Belait Belait 5 Seria 32,900 Seria Town (Pekan Seria) Belait 6 Berakas B 23,400 Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei-Muara 7 Sungai Liang 18,100 None Belait 8 Pengkalan Batu approx. 15,000 None Brunei-Muara 9 Kilanas approx. 14,000 Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei-Muara 10 Kota Batu 12,600 Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei-Muara 11 Pekan Tutong 12,100 Pekan Tutong Tutong 12 Mentiri 10,872 None Brunei-Muara 13 Serasa approx. 10,000 Muara Town (Pekan Muara) Brunei-Muara 14 Kianggeh 8,540 Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei-Muara 15 Burong Pinggai Ayer approx. 8,200 Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei-Muara 16 Keriam 8,000 None Tutong 17 Lumapas 7,458 Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei-Muara 18 Kiudang 7,000 None Tutong 19 Saba approx. 6,600 Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei-Muara 20 Sungai Kedayan approx. 6,000 Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei-Muara Geography Main article: Geography of Brunei The topographic map of Brunei Brunei is a southeast Asian country consisting of two unconnected parts with the total area of 5,765 square kilometres (2,226 sq mi). It has 161 kilometres (100 mi) of coastline next to the South China sea, and it shares a 381 km (237 mi) border with Malaysia. It has 500 square kilometres (193 sq mi) of territorial waters, and an 200 nm exclusive economic zone.[4] 77% of the population lives in the eastern part of Brunei, while only about 10,000 live in the mountainous south eastern part (the district of Temburong). The total population of Brunei Darussalam is approximately 408,000 (July 2010) of which around 150,000 live in the capital Bandar Seri Begawan.[63] Other major towns are the port town of Muara, the oil producing town of Seria and its neighboring town, Kuala Belait. In the Belait district, the Panaga area is home to large numbers of expatriates due to Royal Dutch Shell and British Army housing and recreational facilities located there.[64] Most of Brunei is within the Borneo lowland rain forests ecoregion that covers most of the island but there are areas of mountain rain forests inland.[65] The climate of Brunei is tropical equatorial.[4] The average annual temperature is 26.1 °C (79.0 °F), with the April–May average of 24.7 °C (76.5 °F) and the October–December average of 23.8 °C (74.8 °F).[66] Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Mean Maximum (°C) 25.8 24.8 27.2 27.1 27.5 27.1 28.4 28.3 28.0 26.5 24.4 24.0 28.3 Mean Minimum (°C) 22.1 22.0 22.5 23.9 23.9 24.7 24.1 24.3 25.3 23.1 22.2 23.6 26.2 Average Rainfall (mm) 277.7 138.3 113.0 200.3 239.0 214.2 228.8 215.8 257.7 319.9 329.4 343.5 2873.9 Economy Main article: Economy of Brunei This small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation, welfare measures, and village tradition. Crude oil and natural gas production account for about 90% of its GDP.[8] About 167,000 barrels of oil are produced everyday, making Brunei the fourth largest producer of oil in South-east Asia.[8] It also produces approximately 895 million cubic feet of liquified natural gas per day, making Brunei the ninth-largest exporter of the substance in the world.[8] Substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. Most of these investments are made by the Brunei Investment Agency, an arm of the Ministry of Finance.[8] The government provides for all medical services[67] and subsidizes rice[68] and housing.[8] The national airline, Royal Brunei, is trying to make Brunei a hub for international travel between Europe and Australia/New Zealand, and also has services to major Asian destinations. Brunei is increasingly importing from other countries.[69] Brunei's leaders are very concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it became a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. Stated plans for the future include upgrading the labour force, reducing unemployment, strengthening the banking and tourism sectors, and, in general, further widening the economic base.[70] To achieve its target for food self-sufficiency, Brunei renamed its Brunei Darussalam Rice 1 to Laila Rice during the launch of the "Padi Planting Towards Achieving Self-Sufficiency of Rice Production in Brunei Darussalam" ceremony at the Wasan padi fields in April 2009.[71] In August 2009, the Royal Family reaped the first few Laila padi stalks, after years of multiple attempts to boost local rice production, a goal which was envisioned about half a century ago.[72] In July 2009 Brunei launched its national halal branding scheme, Brunei Halal, with an aim to export to foreign markets.[73] Demographics Main article: Demographics of Brunei Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque at night. The population of Brunei in July 2011 was 401,890 of which 76% live in urban areas. The average life expectancy is 76.17 years. In 2004, 66.3% of the population were Malay, 11.2% are Chinese, 3.4% are Indigenous, with smaller groups making up the rest.[4] The official language of Brunei is Melayu Brunei (Brunei Malay), the official standardized form of the Malay language used in Brunei. Brunei Malay is quite divergent from standard Malay and the rest of the Malay dialects and is mostly mutually unintelligible.[1] English and Chinese are also widely spoken.[74][75] and there is a relatively large expatriate community.[76] Bahasa Rojak, often spoken by the media and the public, is known as a "mixed language" and considered detrimental to normal Malay.[77] Other languages spoken include Kedayan, Tutong, Murut, Dusun and Iban.[74] Islam is the official religion of Brunei,[4] and two-thirds of the population adheres to Islam. Other faiths practiced are Buddhism (13%, mainly by the Chinese) and Christianity (10%).[4] Freethinkers, mostly Chinese, form about 7% of the population. Although most of them practice some form of religion with elements of Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, they prefer to present themselves as having professed no religion officially, hence regarded as atheists in official censuses. Followers of indigenous religions are about 2% of the population.[78] All Brunei citizens have access to free health care from public hospitals. The largest hospital in Brunei is Raja Isteri Pengiran Anak Saleha Hospital (RIPAS) hospital situated in the country's capital Bandar Seri Begawan. There are two private medical centres, Gleneagles JPMC Sdn Bhd .[79] and Jerudong Park Medical Centre. The Health Promotion Centre opened in November 2008 and serves to educate the public on the importance of having a healthy lifestyle.[80] There is currently no medical school in Brunei, and Bruneians wishing to study to become doctors must attend university overseas. However, the Institute of Medicines had been introduced at the Universiti Brunei Darussalam and a new building has been built for the faculty. The building, including research lab facilities, was completed in 2009. There has been a School of Nursing since 1951.[81] 58 nurse managers were appointed in RIPAS to improve service and provide better medical care.[82] In December 2008, The nursing college merged with the Institute of Medicines at the Universiti Brunei Darussalam to produce more nurses and midwives.[83] It is now called the PAPRSB (Pengiran Anak Puteri Rashidah Sa'datul Bolkiah) Institute of Health Sciences.[84] Culture Main article: Culture of Brunei The culture of Brunei is predominantly Malay (reflecting its ethnicity), with heavy influences from Islam, but is seen as more conservative than Malaysia.[85] Brunei's culture is mainly derived from the Old Malay World, which encompassed the Malay Archipelago and from this stemmed what is known as the Malay Civilisation. Based on historical facts, various cultural elements and foreign civilisations had a hand in influencing the culture of this country. Thus, the influence of culture can be traced to four dominating periods of animism, Hinduism, Islam and the West. However, it was Islam that managed to wind its roots deeply into the culture of Brunei hence it became a way of life and adopted as the state's ideology and philosophy.[86] As a Sharia country, the sale and public consumption of alcohol is banned.[87] Non-Muslims are allowed to bring