nd assimilated the Hellenised or Romanised Thracians. Eventually the élite of the Central Asian Bulgars incorporated all of them into a new state which formed upon khan Asparukh's arrival on the Balkans.[12] First Bulgarian empire Main article: First Bulgarian Empire Khan Krum feasts with his nobles after the battle of Pliska. His servant (far right) brings the wine-filled skull cup of Nicephorus I. Asparukh, son of Old Great Bulgaria's khan Kubrat, migrated with several Bulgar tribes to the lower courses of the rivers Danube, Dniester and Dniepr. After 670, he led a horde of as many as 50,000 across the Danube[13] and conquered Moesia and Scythia Minor (Dobruja) from the Byzantine Empire, expanding his new kingdom further into the Balkan Peninsula.[14] The local south Slavic language was gradually adopted by the advancing Bulgars, who nevertheless preserved a dominant position over the Slavic majority. A peace treaty with Byzantium in 681 and the establishment of a permanent capital at Pliska south of the Danube mark the beginning of the First Bulgarian Empire.[15] Succeeding khans strengthened the Bulgarian state throughout the 8th and 9th centuries—Tervel established Bulgaria as a major military power by defeating a 26,000-strong Arab army during the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople;[16] Krum doubled the country's territory, killed Byzantine emperor Nicephorus I in the Battle of Pliska,[17] and introduced the first written code of law; Boris I abolished Tengriism in favour of Eastern Orthodox Christianity in 864,[18] and introduced the Cyrillic alphabet. Simeon the Great's 34-year rule began in 893 and saw the largest territorial expansion of Bulgaria in its history, along with a golden age of Bulgarian culture.[19] After Simeon's death, Bulgaria was weakened by wars with Croatians, Magyars, Pechenegs and Serbs and the spread of the Bogomil heresy.[18][20] Two consecutive Rus' and Byzantine invasions resulted in the seizure of the capital Preslav by the Byzantine army in 971.[21] Under Samuil, Bulgaria somewhat recovered from these attacks and managed to conquer Serbia and Albania,[22] but this rise ended when Byzantine emperor Basil II defeated its armies at Klyuch in 1014. Samuil died shortly after the battle,[23] and by 1018 the Byzantines conquered the remaining parts of the First Bulgarian Empire, putting it to an end.[24] Second Bulgarian empire Main article: Second Bulgarian Empire The Second Bulgarian Empire under Tsar Ivan Asen II in the mid-13th century After conquering Bulgaria, Basil II retained the rule of the local nobility by incorporating them into Byzantine aristocracy and recognised the autocephaly of the Archbishopric of Ohrid, thus preventing discontent and revolts.[25] After his death Byzantine domestic policies changed and a series of unsuccessful rebellions broke out, the largest being led by Peter Delyan. It was not until 1185 when Asen dynasty nobles Ivan Asen I and Peter IV organised a major uprising and succeeded in re-establishing the Bulgarian state, laying the foundations of the Second Bulgarian Empire with Tarnovo as a capital. Kaloyan, the third of the Asen monarchs, extended his dominions to Belgrade, Nish and Skopje; he acknowledged the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, and received a royal crown from a papal legate.[12] The empire reached its zenith under Ivan Asen II (1218–1241), when commerce and culture flourished.[12] The strong economic and religious influence of Tarnovo made it a "Third Rome", unlike the already declining Constantinople.[26] The country's military and economic might declined after the end of the Asen dynasty in 1257, facing internal conflicts, constant Byzantine and Hungarian attacks and Mongol domination.[12][27] By the end of the 14th century, factional divisions between the feudal landlords and the spread of Bogomilism had caused the Second Bulgarian Empire to split into three small tsardoms—Vidin, Tarnovo and Karvuna—and several semi-independent principalities that fought with each other, along with Byzantines, Hungarians, Serbs, Venetians and Genoese. By the late 14th century the Ottoman Turks had started their conquest of Bulgaria and most towns and fortresses south of the Balkan mountains were under their control.[12] Ottoman rule and national awakening Main article: Ottoman Bulgaria Tarnovo was captured by the Ottomans after a three-month siege in 1393. The Vidin Tsardom fell after the defeat of a Christian crusade at the Battle of Nicopolis three years later. With this, the Ottomans finally subjugated all Bulgarian lands south of the Danube.[28] North of the Danube, where a significant number of Bulgarian nobility and common folk remained, the population was under the jurisdiction of various autonomous, predominately Wallachian-led Christian principalities, where the Bulgarian alphabet continued to be used[29] and many cities, like the Wallachian capital of Targovishte, kept their Bulgarian names. The southern nobility however, was eliminated and the peasantry was enserfed to Ottoman masters.[28] The population lost its national consciousness under the oppression and intolerance of the invaders.[30] Bulgarian culture was suppressed and the educated clergy fled to other countries,[31] while Bulgarians were considered an inferior class of people and were subjected to heavy taxes.[12] The Defence of Shipka Pass was crucial for the liberation of Bulgaria. In the final stage of the battle the Bulgarian forces, having finished their ammunition, threw rocks and bodies of fallen comrades to repulse the Ottoman attacks.[32] Throughout the nearly five centuries of Ottoman rule, the Bulgarian people attempted to re-establish their state by organising several revolts, most notably the First and Second Tarnovo Uprisings (1598 / 1686) and Karposh's Rebellion (1689).[28] The National awakening of Bulgaria became one of the key factors in the struggle for liberation, resulting in the 1876 April Uprising. Up to 30,000 Bulgarians were killed as the Ottoman authorities put down the rebellion. The massacres prompted the Great Powers to take action.[33] They convened the Constantinople Conference in 1876, but their decisions were rejected by the Ottoman authorities. This allowed the Russian Empire to seek a solution by force without risking military confrontation with other Great Powers, as had happened in the Crimean War.[33] In 1877 Russia declared war on the Ottoman empire and defeated its forces with the help of Bulgarian volunteers. The Treaty of San Stefano was signed on 3 March 1878, setting up an autonomous Bulgarian principality on the territories of the Second Bulgarian Empire.[34][35] The other Great Powers immediately rejected the treaty out of fear that such a large country in the Balkans might threaten their interests. The subsequent Treaty of Berlin provided for a much smaller autonomous state comprising Moesia and the region of Sofia, leaving large populations of Bulgarians outside the new country.[34][36] This defined Bulgaria's militaristic approach to foreign affairs and its participation in four wars during the first half of the 20th century.[37] The Bulgarian principality won a war against Serbia and incorporated the semi-autonomous Ottoman territory of Eastern Rumelia in 1885, and proclaimed itself an independent state on 22 September 1908.[38] Third Bulgarian State Main articles: History of Bulgaria (1878–1946), People's Republic of Bulgaria, and History of Bulgaria since 1989 Bulgarian soldiers cutting enemy barbed wire and preparing to advance, World War I In the years following independence, Bulgaria was increasingly militarised and was often referred to as "the Balkan Prussia".[39][40] Between 1912 and 1918, Bulgaria became involved in a string of three consecutive conflicts—the Balkan Wars and World War I. After a disastrous defeat in the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria again found itself fighting on the losing side as a result of its alliance with the Central Powers in World War I. Despite fielding more than a quarter of its population in a 1,200,000-strong army[41][42] and achieving several decisive victories at Doiran and Monastir, the country capitulated in 1918. The war resulted in significant territorial losses, a total of 412,000 casualties, and a wave of more than 253,000[43] refugees who put an additional strain on the already ruined national economy. The political unrest resulting from these losses led to the establishment of a royal authoritarian dictatorship by tsar Boris III (1918–1943). Bulgaria entered World War II in 1941 as a member of the Axis but declined to participate in Operation Barbarossa and saved its Jewish population from deportation to concentration camps.[44] The sudden death of Boris III in the summer of 1943 pushed the country into political turmoil as the war turned against Nazi Germany and the Communist guerilla movement gained momentum.[45] Following strikes and unrest, in September 1944 the Communist-dominated Fatherland Front took power, ending the alliance with Nazi Germany and joining the Allied side until the end of the war in 1945.[46] Zhelyu Zhelev, the first democratically elected president of Bulgaria[47] with George H. W. Bush (right) in 1990 The Communist uprising of 9 September 1944 led to the abolition of monarchic rule, but it was not until 1946 that a people's republic was established.[48] It became a part of the Soviet sphere of influence under the leadership of Georgi Dimitrov (1946–1949). Bulgaria installed a Soviet-style planned economy with some market-oriented policies emerging on an experimental level under Todor Zhivkov (1954–1989).[49] By the mid-1950s standards of living rose significantly.[50] Zhivkov's daughter Lyudmila promoted Bulgaria's national heritage, culture and arts worldwide.[51] On the other hand, an assimilation campaign of the late 1980s directed against ethnic Turks resulted in the emigration of some 300,000 of them to Turkey.[52][53] On 10 November 1989, the Bulgarian Communist Party gave up its political monopoly, Zhivkov resigned, and Bulgaria embarked on a transition from a single-party republic to a parliamentary democracy.[54] The first free elections took place in June 1990 and were won by the moderate wing of the Communist Party (the Bulgarian Socialist Party—BSP).[55] A new constitution that provided for a relatively weak elected President and for a Prime Minister accountable to the legislature was adopted in July 1991. The new system eventually failed to improve living standards or create economic growth—the average quality of life and economic performance remained lower than in the times of Communism well into the early 2000s.[56] A reform package introduced in 1997 restored positive economic growth, but living standards continued to suffer.[57] After 2001 economic, political and geopolitical conditions improved greatly,[58] and Bulgaria achieved High Human Development status.[59] It became a member of NATO in 2004 and of the European Union in 2007. Geography Main article: Geography of Bulgaria Bulgaria's geographic coordinates are 43° N 25° E.[60] Its total area is 100,994 kilometres (62,755 mi), which ranks it as the 105th-largest country in the world.[61][62] A total of 1,808 kilometres (1,123 mi) of land borders are shared with five countries—Greece (494 kilometres (307 mi)), Macedonia (148 kilometres (92 mi)), Romania (608 kilometres (378 mi)), Serbia (318 kilometres (198 mi)) and Turkey (240 kilometres (149 mi)). The coastline has a length of 354 kilometres (220 mi).[63] Left: The Balkan Mountains in central Bulgaria Right: The Black Sea coast near Chernomorets Bulgaria has several notable topographical features: the Danubian Plain, the Balkan Mountains, the Thracian Plain, and the Rhodope Mountains.[63] The southern edge of the Danubian Plain slopes upward into the foothills of the Balkans, while its coastline along the Danube defines the border with Romania. The Thracian Plain is roughly triangular, beginning southeast of Sofia and broadening as it reaches the Black Sea coast.[63] The Balkan mountains run east–west through the middle of the country, north of the Rose Valley. The mountainous southwest of the country has two alpine ranges—Rila and Pirin, which border the lower but more extensive Rhodope Mountains to the east.[63] The highest point is Musala at 2,925 metres (9,596 ft)[64] and its lowest point is the sea level at 0 metres. Plains occupy about one-third of the territory, while plateaus and hills occupy 41 per cent.[65] The climate is temperate, with cold winters and hot summers. Considering its relatively small size, Bulgaria has an unusually dynamic climate due to its location at the meeting point of Mediterranean and continental air masses and the barrier effect of its mountains.[63] Precipitation averages about 630 millimetres (24.8 in) per year. Rainfall varies from 500 millimetres (19.7 in) in the Dobrudja to more than 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) in the mountains.[66] Imperial eagles have a gradually growing population in Bulgaria.[67] The country has a dense network of about 540 rivers, most of them—with the notable exception of the Danube—short and with low water levels.[68] The longest river located solely in Bulgarian territory, the Iskar, has a length of 368 kilometres (229 mi). Other major rivers include the Struma and the Maritsa in the south.[63] Environment and wildlife Bulgaria has signed and ratified the Kyoto protocol[69] and has completed the protocol's objectives by achieving a 30 per cent reduction of carbon dioxide emissions from 1990 to 2009.[70] However, pollution from outdated factories and metallurgy works and severe deforestation continue to be major problems.[71] Urban areas are particularly affected mostly due to energy production from coal-based powerplants and automobile traffic,[72][73] while pesticide usage in the agriculture and antiquated industrial sewage systems have resulted in extensive soil and water pollution with chemicals and detergents.[74] Bulgaria remains the only EU member which does not recycle municipal waste,[75] although an electronic waste recycling plant was put in operation in June 2010.[76] The situation has improved in recent years, and several government-funded programmes have been initiated in order to reduce pollution levels.[74] Bulgaria's biodiversity is protected in three national parks, 11 nature parks[77] and 17 biosphere reserves.[78] Nearly 35 per cent of its land area consists of forests,[79] where some of the oldest trees in the world, such as Baikushev's Pine and the Granit oak,[80] have grown. The flora of Bulgaria encompasses more than 3,800 species of which 170 are endemic and 150 are considered endangered.[81] The fauna is represented prominently by the brown bear and the jackal,[82] while the Eurasian lynx and the Eastern imperial eagle have small, but growing populations.[83] Politics Main article: Politics of Bulgaria The National Assembly building Bulgaria is a parliamentary democracy in which the most powerful executive position is that of the prime minister.[58] The political system has three separate branches of power—legislative, executive and judicial, with universal suffrage for citizens 18 years of age and older. Elections are supervised by an independent Central Election Commission that includes members from all major political parties. Parties must register with the commission prior to participating in a national election.[84] Normally, the prime minister-elect is the leader of the party receiving the most votes in parliamentary elections.[58] The National Assembly consists of 240 deputies, each elected for four-year terms by direct popular vote. The National Assembly has the power to enact laws, approve the budget, schedule presidential elections, select and dismiss the Prime Minister and other ministers, declare war, deploy troops abroad, and ratify international treaties and agreements. The president serves as the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and has the authority to return a bill for further debate, although the parliament can override the presidential veto by a simple majority vote of all members of parliament.[58] Boyko Borisov, leader of the centre-right party Citizens for European Development of Bulgaria (Grazhdani za Evropeysko Razvitie na Bulgaria, GERB), became prime minister on 27 July 2009,[85] and Georgi Parvanov was re-elected as a president in 2005. In 2011 Rosen Plevneliev from GERB was elected to succeed Parvanov, receiving 52.5 per cent of the votes on the second round against 47.5 per cent for his Socialist Party opponent Ivaylo Kalfin.[86] Political groups in the Parliament, 2011:   Coalition for Bulgaria (left-wing)   DPS (centrist)   Independent   GERB (centre-right)   Blue Coalition (centre-right)   Ataka (far right) The legal system is a typical civil law system and recognises the Acts of Parliament as a main source of law.[87] The judiciary is a separate branch and is overseen by the Ministry of Justice. The Supreme Administrative Court and Supreme Court of Cassation are the highest courts of appeal and oversee the application of laws in subordinate courts.[84] The Supreme Judicial Council manages the system and appoints judges. Bulgaria's judiciary remains one of Europe's most corrupt and inefficient.[88][89] Law enforcement organisations are mainly subordinate to the Ministry of Interior.[90] The National Police Service (NPS) combats general crime and supports the operations of other law enforcement agencies, such as the National Investigative Service and the Central Office for Combating Organised Crime.[91] NPS fields 27,000 police officers in its local and national sections.[92] The Ministry of Interior also heads the Border Police Service and the National Gendarmerie—a specialised branch for anti-terrorist activity, crisis management and riot control. Counterintelligence and national security are the responsibility of the State Agency for National Security, established in 2008.[93] Administrative divisions Main articles: Provinces of Bulgaria and Municipalities of Bulgaria Bulgaria is a unitary state.[94] Since the 1880s, the number of territorial management units has varied from seven to 26.[95] Between 1987 and 1999 the administrative structure consisted of nine provinces (oblasti, singular oblast). A new administrative structure was adopted in parallel with the decentralisation of the economic system.[96] It includes 27 provinces and a metropolitan capital province (Sofia-Grad). All areas take their names from their respective capital cities. The provinces subdivide into 264 municipalities. Municipalities are run by mayors, who are elected to four-year terms, and by directly elected municipal councils. Bulgaria is a highly centralised state, as the national Council of Ministers directly appoints regional governors and all provinces and municipalities are heavily dependent on it for funding.[84] Blagoevgrad Burgas Dobrich Gabrovo Haskovo Kardzhali Kyustendil Lovech Montana Pazardzhik Pernik Pleven Plovdiv Razgrad Rousse Shumen Silistra Sliven Smolyan Sofia Province Stara Zagora Targovishte Varna Veliko Tarnovo Vidin Vratsa Yambol Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of Bulgaria and Military of Bulgaria Bulgaria became a member of the United Nations in 1955 and since 1966 has been a non-permanent member of the Security Council three times, most recently from 2002 to 2003.[97] Bulgaria was also among the founding nations of the OSCE in 1975. It joined NATO on 29 March 2004, signed the European Union Treaty of Accession on 25 April 2005,[98][99] and became a full member of the European Union on 1 January 2007.[100] Euro-Atlantic integration has been a priority for