sh merchants. The Gold Coast was known for centuries as 'The White Man's Grave', because many of the Europeans who went there died of malaria and other tropical diseases.[19] After the Dutch withdrew in 1874, Britain made the Gold Coast a protectorate. Following conquest by the British in 1896 until independence in March 1957, the territory of modern Ghana, excluding the Volta Region (British Togoland), was known as the Gold Coast.[18] Left: c. 1840 – 17 October 1921, Yaa Asantewaa the queen mother of Ejisu of the Empire of Ashanti and leader of the 1900 "Empire of Ashanti rebellion" known as the War of the Golden Stool against British colonialism; Center: c. 1870 – 12 May 1931, Prempeh I the Asantehene and ruler of the Oyoko Abohyen Dynasty and the Akan people of the Empire of Ashanti from 26 March 1888 until his death in 1931[20]; Right: The Empire of Ashanti Royal stool on a chair with its immediate caretaker on 31 January 1935 Many wars occurred between the colonial powers and the various nation-states in the area, including the 1806 Ashanti-Fante War, and the continuous struggle by the Ashanti against the British in many wars. The Ashanti defeated the British a few times, but eventually lost with the Ashanti-British War in the early 1900s.[21][22][23][24] Even under colonial rule, the chiefs and people often resisted the policies of the British; however, moves toward decolonization intensified after World War II. In 1947, the newly formed United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) called for "self-government within the shortest possible time."[25] After rioting increased in 1948, the members of the United Gold Coast Convention were arrested, including future prime minister and president Kwame Nkrumah. Later, Nkrumah formed his own party, the Convention People's Party (CPP) with the motto "self government now." He began a 'Positive Action' campaign and gained the support of rural and working class people.[24] He was again imprisoned for being the leader of a party that caused boycotts, strikes and other forms of civil disobedience. After winning a majority in the Legislative Assembly in 1952, Nkrumah was released and appointed leader of government business. After further negotiations with Britain, on 6 March 1957 at 12 a.m. Nkrumah declared Ghana "free forever".[24] Cape Coast Castle Independence Arch, Ghana The Flag of Ghana, consisting of the colours red, gold, green, and the black star, became the new flag in 1957. Designed by, Theodosia Salome Okoh, the red represents the blood that was shed towards independence, the gold represents the mineral wealth of Ghana, the green symbolises the rich agriculture, and the black star is the symbol of African emancipation.[26] Formed from the merger of the Gold Coast and British (formerly German) Togoland by a United Nations sponsored plebiscite in 1956, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain its independence in 1957. Kwame Nkrumah, first prime minister, and then president of the modern Ghanaian state, as an anti-colonial leader, sought a united Africa that would not drift into neo-colonialism. He was the first African head of state to promote Pan-Africanism, an idea he came into contact with during his studies at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania (United States), at the time when Marcus Garvey was becoming famous for his "Back to Africa Movement." He merged the teachings of Garvey and the African-American scholar W. E. B. Du Bois into the formation of the modern day Ghana. Ghana's principles of freedom and justice, equity and free education for all, irrespective of ethnic background, religion or creed, borrow from Nkrumah's implementation of Pan-Africanism.[18] 1989: The Soviet Union's postage stamp marking the 80th anniversary of the birth of Dr.h.c. Kwame Nkrumah (1909–1972). Nkrumah leader of Ghana and its predecessor state, the Gold Coast, from 1952 to 1966 and overseeing the nation's independence from British colonial rule in 1957, Nkrumah was the first President of Ghana and the first Prime Minister of Ghana as well as founding and leading the Convention People's Party (CPP) in 1949. Although his goal of African unity was never realised, Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, as he is now known, played an instrumental part in the founding of the Organisation of African Unity, which was succeeded in 2002 by the African Union. His achievements were recognised by Ghanaians during his centenary birthday celebrations, and the day was instituted as a public holiday. Dr. Nkrumah's government was subsequently overthrown by the military while he was abroad in February 1966. Former Central Intelligence Agency employee John Stockwell alleges that the CIA had an effective hand in forcing the coup.[27] A series of subsequent coups from 1966 to 1981 ended with the ascension to power of Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings in 1981. These changes resulted in the suspension of the constitution in 1981, and the banning of political parties. The economy suffered a severe decline soon after, and many Ghanaians migrated to other countries.[28] Kwame Darko negotiated a structural adjustment plan with the International Monetary Fund, changing many old economic policies, and the economy began to recover. A new constitution restoring multi-party politics was promulgated in 1992; Rawlings was elected as president then, and again in 1996. The Constitution of 1992 prohibited him from running for a third term, so his party, the National Democratic Congress, chose his Vice President, John Atta Mills, to run against the opposition parties. Winning the 2000 elections, John Agyekum Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party was sworn into office as president in January 2001, and beat Mills again in 2004, thus also serving two terms as president. In 2009, John Atta Mills took office as President of Ghana with a difference of about 40,000 votes (0.46%) [29] between his party, the National Democratic Congress and the New Patriotic Party, marking the second time that power had been transferred from one legitimately elected leader to another, and securing Ghana's status as a stable democracy.[30] In 2011, John Atta Mills won the NDC congress when he ran against Nana Konadu Agyeman Rawlings for the National Democratic Congress flagbearership. He won by 2,771 votes, representing 96.9% of the total votes cast. Regions and districts Main articles: Regions of Ghana and Districts of Ghana Ghana is divided into 10 administrative regions, subdivided into a total of 170 districts. The regions are: Ashanti, capital Kumasi Brong Ahafo, capital Sunyani Central, capital Cape Coast Eastern, capital Koforidua Greater Accra, capital Accra Northern, capital Tamale Upper East, capital Bolgatanga Upper West, capital Wa Volta, capital Ho Western, capital Sekondi-Takoradi Government and politics Main article: Politics of Ghana The celebration of the 50th independence anniversary According to the 2009 Failed States Index, Ghana is ranked the 53rd least failed state in the world and the second least failed state in Africa after Mauritius. Ghana ranked 124th out of 177 countries on the index.[31] Ghana also was placed 7th out of 48 sub-Saharan African countries in the 2008 Ibrahim Index of African Governance which was based on data from 2006. The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African government, based on a number of different variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens.[32] Political corruption in Ghana is on the increase jumping from 50 in 2002 to 70 in 2003[33] and 63 to 69 in the 2011 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index.[34] Government Main article: Parliament of Ghana See also: Elections in Ghana The seat of government in Ghana, Osu Castle today (left image) A contemporary drawing of the Danish colonial fort, Fort Christiansborg, now Osu Castle. The outpost to the right is Fort Prøvestenen (right image). Ghana was created as a parliamentary democracy at independence in 1957, followed by alternating military and civilian governments. In January 1993, military government gave way to the Fourth Republic after presidential and parliamentary elections in late 1992. The 1992 constitution divides powers among a president, parliament, cabinet, council of state, and an independent judiciary. The government is elected by universal suffrage; however, the legislature is not proportionate, with low-population districts receiving more representatives per person than those with high populations.[35] Administrative divisions Main articles: Regions of Ghana and Districts of Ghana There are ten administrative regions which are divided into 138 districts, each with its own district assembly. Below districts are various types of councils, including 58 town or area councils, 108 zonal councils, and 626 area councils. Sixteen thousand unit committees exist on the lowest level.[35] The Supreme Court Building, Accra Judicial system Main article: Judiciary of Ghana The legal system is based on British common law, customary (traditional) law, and the 1992 constitution. Court hierarchy consists of Supreme Court of Ghana (highest court), courts of appeal, and high courts of justice. Beneath these bodies are circuit, magisterial, and traditional courts. Extrajudicial institutions include public tribunals.[35] Since independence, courts are relatively independent; this independence continues under Fourth Republic. Lower courts are being redefined and reorganized under the Fourth Republic.[35] Politics Relations between the People's Republic of China and Ghana date back to 1960 when the countries first established diplomatic relations. Since then Ghana has provided substantial diplomatic support to the PRC. In the 1960s President Kwame Nkrumah lobbied for the PRC's reinstatement in the United Nations. Nkrumah also supported the PRC during the Sino-Indian War in 1962. In the early 1990s Ghana once again provided substantial diplomatic support to China during the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989.[36]:4–5 Political parties became legal in mid-1992 after a ten-year hiatus. There are many political parties under the Fourth Republic; the major ones are the National Democratic Congress which won presidential and parliamentary elections in 1992, 1996 and 2008; the New Patriotic Party, the major opposition party which won elections in 2000 and 2004; the People's National Convention, and the Convention People's Party, successor to Kwame Nkrumah's original party of the same name.[35] Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of Ghana and Ghana Armed Forces See also: People's Republic of China–Ghana relations Kofi Annan Since independence, Ghana has been devoted to ideals of nonalignment and Pan-Africanism, both closely identified with Nkrumah. Ghana favours international and regional political and economic co-operation, and is an active member of the United Nations and the African Union. Many Ghanaian diplomats and politicians hold positions in international organisations. These include Ghanaian diplomat and former Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, International Criminal Court Judge Akua Kuenyehia, former President Jerry John Rawlings and former President John Agyekum Kuffour who have both been elected chairmen of the Economic Community of West African States.[35] In September 2010, Ghana's President John Atta Mills visited China on an official visit. Ghanaian President John Atta Mills and China'a President Hu Jintao, marked the 50th anniversary of diplomatic ties between the two nations, at the Great Hall of the People on 20 September 2010.[37] China reciprocated with a visit in November 2011, by the Vice Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China, Zhou Tienong who visited Ghana and met with Ghana's Vice President John Dramani Mahama.[38] On 23 January 2012, Ghana's President John Atta Mills, Ghana's Vice President John Dramani Mahama, Ghana's two dominant political parties National Democratic Congress (NDC) and New Patriotic Party (NPP) gave their support to the Republic of Kosovo by recognizing the disputed territory in the Balkans to become a sovereign state and thus becoming the 86th sovereign state to do so,[39] despite of previous strong support from Ghana to Serbia in 2010, and an overwhelming objection from Ghana's citizens and population of the Republic of Kosovo being recognized and becoming a sovereign state.[40][41] 1918: RSM Alhaji Grunshi (DCM MM) of the Gold Coast Regiment, the first soldier in British service to fire a shot in the First World War Ghanaian soldiers run to their positions while engaged in amphibious operations in southwest coast of Ghana, 15 October 2005 GNS Anzone (P 30) and the GNS Achimota (in the background) conduct division tactics off the coast of Ghana, 20 October 2005 World War I Ghanaian soldier Alhaji Grunshi of the Gold Coast Regiment was the first soldier in British service to fire a shot in World War I.[42][43][44] After establishing supremacy in the Gold Coast, the British created the Gold Coast Regiment as a component of the West African Frontier Force (WAFF), which kept peace throughout the territories of the Gold Coast, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and the Gambia.[45] In 1928, the WAFF became the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF). British officers and non-commissioned officers organized, trained, and equipped the Gold Coast Regiment. On July 31, 1914, four days before the British declaration of war on Germany, Accra mobilized its military forces. The Gold Coast Regiment included thirty-eight British officers, eleven British warrant or non-commissioned officers, 1,584 Africans, (including 124 carriers for guns and machine guns), and about 300 reservists. Additionally, the four Volunteer Corps (Gold Coast Volunteers, Gold Coast Railway Volunteers, Gold Coast Mines Volunteers, and Ashanti Mines Volunteers) fielded about 900 men. The forces participated in the campaigns in Togo, Cameroon, and East Africa.[45] World War II The Gold Coast also played a significant role in the Allied war effort during World War II. On June 27, 1942, the United States Army activated the Air Transport Command in Cairo under Brigadier General Shepler W. Fitzgerald. Ten days later, Fitzgerald moved his headquarters to Accra and organized the Africa-Middle East Wing.[45] In late 1942, the United States Army expanded its presence in Accra by activating the Twelfth Ferrying Group Headquarters, the Forty-first Ferrying Squadron, and the Forty second Ferrying Squadron. The Twelfth Ferrying Group, which was part of a transportation network reaching from the United States, via Africa, to the China-Burma-India theatre of operations, ensured the movement of men and materiel through Senegal, Ghana, and Chad. Approximately 65,000 Ghanaian soldiers (Gold Coast Regiments) fought on the side of the Allies during the Second World War.[45] Ghana Armed Forces In 1957, the Ghana Army consisted of its headquarters, support services, three battalions of infantry and a reconnaissance squadron with armoured cars. Total strength was approximately 5,700 men.[46] Ghanaian Prime Minister Kwame Nkrumah wished to rapidly expand and Africanise the army in order to support his Pan-African and anti-colonial ambitions. Thus in 1961, 4th and 5th Battalions were established, and in 1964 6th Battalion was established, from a parachute unit originally raised in 1963.[47] Today the Ghana Armed Forces are in military alliance with the People's Republic of China's People's Liberation Army.[48] Ghana has contributed forces to numerous UN and ECOWAS operations, including in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lebanon, and Liberia (ECOMOG and UNMIL). Ghana also contributed UN peacekeepers in UNAMIR during the Rwandan Genocide. In his book Shake Hands with the Devil, Canadian Forces commander Roméo Dallaire gave the Ghanaian soldiers high credit for their work and effort in the conflict.[46] Economy Main article: Economy of Ghana Sunyani Cocoa House, August 2003 The economy of Ghana was listed as The World's Fastest Growing Economy in 2011 in economic research led by Economy Watch with data coming from the IMF's tracker of GDP Growth in constant prices in the national currency (not converted to US dollars), with an economic growth predicted to be about 20% in 2011.[12] Other countries have competing claims to be the fastest growing economy.[49][50][51] Ghana is a Middle Income Economy.[52] Well endowed with natural resources, Ghana has more than twice the per capita output of the poorer countries in West Africa. Known for its gold in colonial times, Ghana remains one of the world's top gold producers. Other exports such as cocoa, crude oil, natural gas, timber, electricity, diamond, bauxite,[53] and manganese are major sources of foreign exchange, even though Ghana continues to experience electricity and gas shortages, and remains a developing nation after 55 years of independence from the declining Britain.[54] 1st President of the Republic of Ghana, Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah with the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy in The Pentagon on 8 March 1961 1st President of the 4th Republic of Ghana, Jerry John Rawlings speaking at the Faculty of Law, University of Oxford on 18 May 2009 2nd President of the 4th Republic of Ghana, John Agyekum Kufuor with then-President of Brazil, Lula da Silva in Osu Castle on 12 April 2005 3rd President of the 4th Republic of Ghana, John Atta Mills on a meeting with the Minister of Development of Brazil, Miguel Jorge in Osu Castle on 8 June 2009 The Akosombo Dam, which was built on the Volta River in 1965 by Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah provides hydro-electricity for Ghana and its neighbouring countries. Since 2001 to present many of Ghana's national companies handling the natural resources of Ghana have been sold off for a mere pittance during the former-President of Ghana John Agyekum Kufuor and the John Atta Mills led governments, in which former military ruler Jerry John Rawlings during his 20 years rule of Ghana sold off more than half of government-owned enterprises established by Ghana's first president, Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah.[55] Typical among these is the sell off of Ghana's entire gold reserves[56] and drinking water by John Agyekum Kufuor in 2002.[57] At the end of December 2011, Ghana's – Total External debt has escalated to an all time high of $18 billion (GH¢ 23.4 billion) up from $8 billion (GH¢ 8.8 billion) at the end of December 2008. Ghana's debt was at US$1 billion in 1966 by an Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah led government and Ghana was among the wealthiest and most socially advanced areas in Africa, then the debt significantly increased from US$1 billion to $7.5 billion during Jerry John Rawlings 20 years rule of Ghana, which ended in 2001.[58] The escalation of unnecessary borrowing from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and creditors by successive governments have put a burden of debt on future generations of Ghanaians.[58] Typical among these is the borrowing of $3 billion in December 2011 by John Atta Mills from China Development Bank in exchange of oil from Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) to the China crude oil Off-Takers for an undisclosed fee to offset the loan, despite objections from an overwhelmingly majority of the Parliament of Ghana and the IMF, as the loan would cause a net drain of Ghana's oil wealth to China and put Ghana at risk of default.[59] Successive governments still succumb to unnecessary foreign aid from the United States and European nations. Such as the additional support from January 2012, by the European Commission of €52 million (GH¢ 110 million) to reduce maternal mortality and achieve the MDG 5 targets, in which Ghana ca