.1 Ancient history 3.2 Ottoman Era 3.3 French mandate and independence 3.4 1948 Arab-Israeli war 3.5 Civil war and beyond 3.5.1 Cedar Revolution 3.5.2 The UN Investigation and the controversy 3.5.3 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict 3.5.4 Nahr al-Bared conflict 3.5.5 2008 internal strife 3.5.6 2011 government collapse 4 Government and politics 4.1 Foreign relations 4.2 Military 5 Governorates and districts 6 Healthcare in Lebanon 7 Economy 8 Tourism 9 Education 9.1 Schools 9.2 Higher education 10 Demographics 10.1 Population projection 10.2 Religion 10.3 Language 10.4 Diaspora 10.5 Refugees 11 Culture 11.1 Overview 11.2 Arts and literature 11.3 Festivals 11.4 Holidays 11.5 National flag 11.6 Music 11.7 Sports 11.8 Theatre 12 Media 12.1 Film 12.2 Internet 12.3 Publishing 12.4 Television 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 Bibliography 17 Further reading 18 External links Etymology The name Lebanon comes from the Semitic root lbn, meaning "white", likely a reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon. Upon his arrival to Lebanon around 47 BC, Julius Caesar proclaimed "Lub" "Na'an", meaning "White-Land" in Semitic.[16] Occurrences of the name have been found in texts from the library of Ebla,[17] which date to the third millennium BC, nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (perhaps as early as 2100 BC).[18] The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L.[19] Geography Main article: Geography of Lebanon Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain ranges Mountain scenery in Barouk Lebanon is located in Western Asia between latitudes 33° and 35° N, and longitudes 35° and 37° E. The country's surface area is 10,452 square kilometres (4,036 sq mi) of which 10,230 square kilometres (3,950 sq mi) is land. Lebanon has a coastline and border of 225 kilometres (140 mi) on the Mediterranean sea to the west, a 375 kilometres (233 mi) border shared with Syria to the north and east and a 79 kilometres (49 mi) long border with Israel to the south.[20] The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms.[21] Lebanon is divided into four distinct physiographic regions: the coastal plain, the Lebanon mountain range, the Beqaa valley and the Anti-Lebanon mountains. The narrow and discontinuous coastal plain stretches from the Syrian border in the north where it widens to form the Akkar plain to Ras al-Naqoura at the border with Israel in the south. The fertile coastal plain is formed of marine sediments and river deposited alluvium alternating with sandy bays and rocky beaches. The Lebanon mountains rise steeply parallel to the Mediterranean coast and form a ridge of limestone and sandstone that runs for most of the country's length. The mountain range varies in width between 10km and 56km; it is carved by narrow and deep gorges. The Lebanon mountains peak at 3,088 metres (10,131 ft) above sea level in Qurnat as Sawda' in North Lebanon and gradually slope to the south before rising again to a height of 2,695 metres (8,842 ft) in Mount Sannine. The Beqaa valley sits between the Lebanon mountains in the west and the Anti-Lebanon range in the east; it's a part of the Great Rift Valley system. The valley is 180km long and 10 to 26km wide, its fertile soil is formed by alluvial deposits. The Anti-Lebanon range runs parallel to the Lebanon mountains, its highest peak is in Mount Hermon at 2,814 metres (9,232 ft).[20] Nahr Ibrahim running through the lush Adonis gorge The mountains of Lebanon are drained by seasonal torrents and rivers foremost of which is the 145 kilometres (90 mi) long Leontes that rises in the Beqaa Valley to the west of Baalbek and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre.[20] Climate Main article: Climate of Lebanon Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with heavy snow cover that remains until early summer on the higher mountaintops.[22][20] Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little because of rain shadow created by the high peaks of the western mountain range.[23] Environment In ancient times, Lebanon was covered by large forests of Cedar, the national emblem of the country.[24] As a result of longstanding exploitation, few old Cedar trees remain in pockets of forests in Lebanon, but there is an active program to conserve and regenerate the forests. The Lebanese approach has emphasized natural regeneration over planting, and this by creating the right conditions for germination and growth. The Lebanese state has created several nature reserves that contain cedars, including the Shouf Biosphere Reserve, the Jaj Cedar Reserve, the Tannourine Reserve, the Ammouaa and Karm Shbat Reserves in the Akkar district, and the Forest of the Cedars of God near Bsharri.[25][26][27] In 2010, the Environment Ministry set a 10-year plan to increase the national forest coverage by 20% that is equivalent to the planting of two million new trees each year.[28] The plan, which was funded the U.S. development agency, USAID, and overseen by the U.S. Forest Service, and the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative, was inaugurated in 2011 by planting of seedlings, such as cedar, pine, wild almond, juniper, fir and oak, in five regions around Lebanon.[28] The forests cover 13.4% of the Lebanese land area;[29] they are under constant threat from wildfires caused by the long dry summer season.[30] History Main article: History of Lebanon Ancient history Main article: History of ancient Lebanon Carthage and its dependencies in the 3rd century BC. It was one of a number of Phoenician settlements in the western Mediterranean. Evidence of an early settlement in Lebanon was found in Byblos, which is considered to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world,[7] and date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists discovered remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars left by the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.[31] Lebanon was the homeland of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great.[32] After two centuries of Persian rule, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the most prominent Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Egyptian Empire, Persian, Assyrian, Hellenistic, Roman, Eastern Roman, Arab, Seljuk, Mamluk, Crusader, and the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman Era Prince Bashir II "the Great" was Emir of Mt. Lebanon from 1788 until 1840. In 1590, Fakhr-al-Din II became successor to Korkmaz. He was a skilled politician and described as a pupil of Machiavelli. Fakhr-al-Din II adjusted to the lifestyles of the Druze, Christianity and Islam, according to his needs. He paid tribute to the Sultanate of the Ottoman Empire and shared the spoils of war with his masters. Eventually, Fakhr-al-Din II was appointed Sultan of Mt. Lebanon, with full authority. He was considered one of the greatest rulers of the region, also across the Middle of Lebanon. But, his enemies and governors angered the Ottoman Sultanate. Hence, a campaign, calling for the arrest of Fakhr-al-Din II, found the deposed leader in Istanbul, where he was executed by hanging.[33] Shortly afterwards, the Emirate of Mt. Lebanon that lasted more than 500 years was replaced, instead of the emirate meteor. French mandate and independence Main article: French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon The States of the French Mandate Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, until 1918 when the area became a part of the French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon following World War I. By the end of the war, famine had killed an estimated 100,000 people in Beirut and Mount Lebanon, about 30% of the total population.[34] On 1 September 1920, France reestablished Greater Lebanon after the Moutasarrifiya rule removed several regions belonging to the Principality of Lebanon and gave them to Syria.[35] Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite territory with some Greek Orthodox) enclaves but it also included areas containing many Muslims (including Druze). On 1 September 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. A constitution was adopted on 25 May 1926 establishing a democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany.[36] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon. After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under political pressure from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle recognized the independence of Lebanon. On 26 November 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on 8 November 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on 22 November 1943 and recognized the independence of Lebanon. The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Maronite Christian, its speaker of the parliament to be a Shiite Muslim, its prime minister be Sunni Muslim, and the deputy speaker of Parliament and the deputy prime minister be Greek Orthodox.[37] Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.[38] 1948 Arab-Israeli war Main article: 1948 Arab-Israeli war In May 1948, Lebanon supported neighbouring Arab countries against Israel. While some irregular forces crossed the border and carried out minor skirmishes against Israel, it was without the support of the Lebanese government, and Lebanese troops did not officially invade.[39] Lebanon agreed to support the forces with covering artillery fire, armored cars, volunteers and logistical support.[40] On 5–6 June 1948, the Lebanese army captured Al-Malkiyya. This was Lebanon's only success in the war.[41] During the war, some 100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon, and Israel did not permit their return at the end of hostilities.[42] Palestinians, previously prevented from working at all due to denial of citizenship, are now forbidden to work in some 20 professions after liberalization laws.[43] Today, more than 400,000 refugees remain in limbo, about half in camps.[44] Civil war and beyond Main article: Lebanese Civil War Further information: 1982 Lebanon War, Operation Litani, and List of attacks in Lebanon The Green Line that separated west and east Beirut, 1982 In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded.[45] Some 900,000 people, representing one-fifth of the pre-war population, were displaced from their homes.[46] The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.[47] GDP Change in Lebanon before and during the civil war (in real terms)[48] 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1990 2000 2005 2011 GDP change (in real terms) 12.2% 4.7% 2.4% -30.3% -57.0% 67.7% -2.6% 2.4% 1.5% 0.6% -36.8% 6.5% 8.5% 4.6% 3.5% GDP per capita (US$, current values) 893 1132 1423 1186 527 1005 1091 1274 1526 1470 1006 2201 4889 8921 11109 During the civil war, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) used Lebanon to launch attacks against Israel. Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982,[49] with the PLO expelled in the second invasion. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, to withdraw because of continuous attacks executed by Hezbollah, and a belief that the violence would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence in Lebanon.[50] The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the blue line was in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a border region called the Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.[51] Cedar Revolution Main article: Cedar Revolution Part of Rue Minet al Hosn, where Rafik Hariri was assassinated on 14 February 2005 On 14 February 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion near the Saint George Hotel in Beirut.[52] Leaders of the March 14 Alliance, a pro-Western coalition, accused Syria of the attack[53] because of its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending President Lahoud's term in office. Others, namely the March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the Israeli Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country.[54] This incident triggered a series of demonstrations, dubbed the 'Cedar Revolution,' which demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1559 on 7 April 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri.[55] Preliminary findings of the investigation were officially published on 20 October 2005 in the Mehlis report, which cited indications that high-ranking members of the Syrian and Lebanese governments were involved in the assassination.[56] Eventually, and under pressure from the West, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon.[57] By 26 April 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria.[58] The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that resulted in the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures.[59] The UN Investigation and the controversy In 2005, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed Mehlis as the Commissioner of the UN International Independent Investigation Commission (UNIIIC) into the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri and 21 other people in Beirut.[60] In October 2005, Jund al-Sham threatened to kill Detlev Mehlis while he was heading the UN inquiry into the assassination of Rafik Hariri, claiming that Mehlis was connected with Israel and the CIA.[61] The Mehlis report was presented to the Secretary General on 20 October 2005. It implicated Lebanese and Syrian Military Intelligence in the assassination, and it accused Syrian officials, including now Foreign Minister Muallem, of misleading the investigation.[62] A second report was submitted on 10 December 2005. On 11 January 2006 Mehlis, upon his own suggestion, was replaced by Serge Brammertz.[63] 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict Main article: 2006 Lebanon War Lebanese refugees in south Lebanon on July 27 On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah launched a series of rocket attacks into Israeli towns and cities in proximity to the Israeli Lebanese border. This was combined with a cross border raid into Israeli territory where Hezbollah operatives killed three Israeli soldiers and captured a further two.[64] Hezbollah claims that the objectives of the operation were to free Lebanese prisoners held in Israel. Israel responded with airstrikes and a ground incursion into Lebanon aimed at halting Hezbollah's rocket fire, reducing Hezbollah's military capacity and rescuing the two abducted Israeli soldiers. The 34 day campaign caused wide spread damage to Lebanon's infrastructure (including Beirut's airport). Beirut's southern suburb was heavily damaged by Israeli airstrikes where Hezbollah military infrastructure was deeply embedded among the civilian population.[65] The month-long conflict caused significant loss of life; some 1,191 Lebanese[66] and 160 Israelis[67] were killed in the conflict. While figures are vastly debated, between one third and two thirds of Lebanese deaths are believed to have been civilians. 43 Israeli civilians were killed by Hezbollah rocket fire.[67] Throughout the conflict, between 3,900 and 4,228 Hezbollah rockets landed on northern Israel, mainly in civilian areas. A number of rockets landed on Israeli forested areas causing wide spread bush fires. The conflict officially ended on 14 August 2006, when the United Nations Security Council issued resolution 1701 ordering a ceasefire between Hezbollah and Israel.[68] On July 16, 2008, Israel exchanged 5 Lebanese militants and the remains of 199 Palestinian and Lebanese militants killed in conflicts with Israel for the remains of the two captured Israeli soldiers, whose fates were unknown.[69] Nahr al-Bared conflict Main article: 2007 Lebanon conflict Nahr al-Bared (Arabic: ??? ??????, literally: Cold River) is a Palestinian refugee camp in northern Lebanon, 16 km from the city of Tripoli. Some 30,000 displaced Palestinians and their descendants live in and around the camp, which was named after the river that runs south of the camp. The camp was established in December 1949 by the League of Red Cross Societies in order to accommodate the Palestinian refugees suffering from the difficult winter conditions in the Beqaa Valley and the suburbs of Tripoli. The Lebanese Army is banned from entering all Palestinian camps under the 1969 Cairo Agreement. Late in the night of Saturday 19 May 2007, a building was surrounded by Lebanese Internal Security Forces (ISF) in which a group of Fatah al-Islam militants accused of taking part in a bank robbery earlier that day were hiding. The ISF attacked the building early on Sunday 20 May 2007, unleashing a day long battle between the ISF and Fatah al-Islam militants. As a response, members of Fatah al-Islam in Nahr al-Bared Camp attacked an army checkpoint, killing several soldiers in their sleep. The army immediately responded by shelling the camp and launching rockets bringing down specific buildings. The camp became the center of the fighting between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al-Islam. It sustained heavy shelling while under siege. UNRWA estimates the battle between the army and Islamic militant group Fatah al-Islam destroyed or rendered uninhabitable as much as 85% of homes in the camp and ruined infrastructure. The camp’s up to 40,000 residents were forced to flee, many of them sheltering in the already overcrowded Beddawi camp, 10 km to the south. At least 169 soldiers, 287 insurgents and 47 c