the Netherlands. The Congress of Vienna formed Luxembourg as a Grand Duchy in personal union with the Netherlands. Luxembourg also became a member of the German Confederation, with a Confederate fortress manned by Prussian troops.[7] The Belgian Revolution of 1830–1839 reduced Luxembourg's territory by more than half, as the predominantly francophone western part of the country was transferred to Belgium. Luxembourg's independence was reaffirmed by the 1839 First Treaty of London. In the same year, Luxembourg joined the Zollverein.[8] Luxembourg's independence and neutrality were again affirmed by the 1867 Second Treaty of London, after the Luxembourg Crisis nearly led to war between Prussia and France.[9] After the latter conflict, the Confederate fortress was dismantled.[10] The King of the Netherlands remained Head of State as Grand Duke of Luxembourg, maintaining personal union between the two countries until 1890. At the death of William III, the Dutch throne passed to his daughter Wilhelmina, while Luxembourg (at that time restricted to male heirs by the Nassau Family Pact) passed to Adolph of Nassau-Weilburg.[11] During the First World War Luxembourg was invaded and occupied by Germany, but was allowed to maintain its independence and political mechanisms. During World War II, Luxembourg abandoned its policy of neutrality, when it joined the Allies in fighting Nazi Germany. It was again invaded and subject to German occupation in the Second World War in 1940, and was formally annexed into the Third Reich in 1942. Its government, exiled to London, set up a small group of volunteers who participated in the Normandy invasion. It became a founding member of the United Nations in 1946, and of NATO in 1949. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the European Union), and, in 1999, it joined the euro currency area. In 2005, a referendum on the EU treaty establishing a constitution for Europe was held in Luxembourg.[12] [edit] Government and politics Main article: Politics of Luxembourg Districts of Luxembourg Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy headed by a constitutional monarch. Under the constitution of 1868, executive power is exercised by the Grand Duke and the cabinet, which consists of several other ministers. The Governor has the power to dissolve the legislature and reinstate a new one, as long as the Grand Duke has judicial approval. However, since 1919, sovereignty has resided with the Supreme Court.[13] Legislative power is vested in the Chamber of Deputies, a unicameral legislature of sixty members, who are directly elected to five-year terms from four constituencies. A second body, the Council of State (Conseil d'État), composed of twenty-one ordinary citizens appointed by the Grand Duke, advises the Chamber of Deputies in the drafting of legislation.[14] The Grand Duchy has three lower tribunals (justices de paix; in Esch-sur-Alzette, the city of Luxembourg, and Diekirch), two district tribunals (Luxembourg and Diekirch) and a Superior Court of Justice (Luxembourg), which includes the Court of Appeal and the Court of Cassation. There is also an Administrative Tribunal and an Administrative Court, as well as a Constitutional Court, all of which are located in the capital. [edit] Districts, cantons, and communes Main articles: Districts of Luxembourg, Cantons of Luxembourg, and Communes of Luxembourg Further information: Administrative divisions of Luxembourg Luxembourg is divided into 3 districts, which are further divided into 12 cantons and then 116 communes. Twelve of the communes have city status, of which the city of Luxembourg is the largest. The districts are 1. Diekirch 2. Grevenmacher 3. Luxembourg [edit] Military Main article: Military of Luxembourg The contribution Luxembourg makes to its defence and to NATO consists of a small army (currently consisting of around 800 people). As a landlocked country, it has no navy. Luxembourg also lacks an air force, though the seventeen NATO AWACS aeroplanes are for convenience registered as aircraft of Luxembourg.[15] In accordance with a joint agreement with Belgium, both countries have put forth funding for one A400M military cargo plane, currently on order. Luxembourg still jointly maintains three NATO Boeing 707 model TCAs (for cargo and training purposes) based at NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen.[15] [edit] Geography and climate Main article: Geography of Luxembourg The largest towns are Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Dudelange, and Differdange. Luxembourg is one of the smallest countries in Europe, and ranked 175th in size of all the 194 independent countries of the world; the country is about 2,586 square kilometres (998 sq mi) in size, and measures 82 km (51 miles) long and 57 km (35 miles) wide. To the east, Luxembourg borders the German Bundesländer of Rhineland-Palatinate and Saarland, and, to the south, it borders the French région of Lorraine. The Grand Duchy borders the Belgian Walloon Region, in particular the latter's provinces of Luxembourg and Liège, more in particular the German-speaking Community of Belgium, to the west and to the north respectively. The northern third of the country is known as the 'Oesling', and forms part of the Ardennes. It is dominated by hills and low mountains, including the Kneiff near Wilwerdange,[16] which is the highest point, at 560 metres (1,837 ft). Other mountains are the 'Buurgplaaz' at 559 metres near Huldange and the 'Napoléonsgaard' at 548 metres near Rambrouch. The region is sparsely populated, with only one town (Wiltz) with a population of more than four thousand people. Countryside of Alscheid. The southern two-thirds of the country is called the "Gutland", and is more densely populated than the Oesling. It is also more diverse, and can be divided into five geographic sub-regions. The Luxembourg plateau, in south-central Luxembourg, is a large, flat, sandstone formation, and the site of the city of Luxembourg. Little Switzerland, in the east of Luxembourg, has craggy terrain and thick forests. The Moselle valley is the lowest-lying region, running along the southeastern border. The Red Lands, in the far south and southwest, are Luxembourg's industrial heartland and home to many of Luxembourg's largest towns. The border between Luxembourg and Germany is formed by three rivers: the Moselle, the Sauer, and the Our. Other major rivers are the Alzette, the Attert, the Clerve, and the Wiltz. The valleys of the mid-Sauer and Attert form the border between the Gutland and the Oesling. Luxembourg has a marine west coast climate (Köppen: Cfb), marked by high precipitation, particularly in late summer.[17] Many areas of Luxembourg are covered by dense fog between August and April, particularly the country's main river valleys. [edit] Demographics Main article: Demographics of Luxembourg [edit] Ethnicity The people of Luxembourg are called Luxembourgers.[18] The native population has a Celtic base with a French and Germanic blend.[19] The immigrant population increased in the twentieth century due to the arrival of immigrants from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, and Portugal, with the majority coming from this last country. In the 2001 census, there were 58,657 inhabitants with Portuguese nationality.[20] Since the beginning of the Yugoslav wars, Luxembourg has seen many immigrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia. Annually, over 10,000 new immigrants arrive in Luxembourg, mostly from the EU states, as well and Eastern Europe. As of 2000, there were 162,000 immigrants in Luxembourg, accounting for 37% of the total population. There were an estimated 5,000 undocumented immigrants, including asylum seekers, in Luxembourg as of 1999.[21] [edit] Language Main article: Languages of Luxembourg Three languages are recognised as official in Luxembourg: French, German, and Luxembourgish, a Franconian language of the Moselle region which is also spoken in the neighbouring part of France and Germany. More than 5,000 words in the Luxembourgish have their origin in the French language.[22][23] The first printed sentences in Luxembourgisch were released by the weekly journal the 'Luxemburger Wochenblatt[dead link]' in 1821. Apart from being one of the three official languages, Luxembourgish is also considered the national language of the Grand Duchy; it is the mother tongue or "language of the heart" for nearly all Luxembourgers. Each of the three languages is used as the primary language in certain spheres. Luxembourgish is the language that Luxembourgers generally use to speak to each other, but it is not often written down. Most official (written) business is carried out in French. German is usually the first language taught in school and is the language of much of the media and of the church.[24] Luxembourg's education system is trilingual: the first years of primary school are in Luxembourgish, before changing to German, while in secondary school, the language of instruction changes to French.[25] However, as proficiency in all three languages is required for graduation from secondary school, half the students leave school without a certified qualification, with the children of immigrants being particularly disadvantaged.[26] Notre-Dame Cathedral, Luxembourg. In addition to the three official languages, English is taught in the compulsory schooling and much of the population of Luxembourg can speak English, at any rate in Luxembourg City. Portuguese and Italian, the languages of the two largest immigrant communities, are also spoken by large parts of the population, but by relatively few from outside their respective communities.[27] [edit] Religion Main article: Religion in Luxembourg Luxembourg is a secular state, but the state recognises certain religions as officially mandated religions. This gives the state a hand in religious administration and appointment of clergy, in exchange for which the state pays certain running costs and wages. Currently, religions covered by such arrangements are Roman Catholicism, Judaism, Greek Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Russian Orthodoxy, Protestantism and Islam.[28] Since 1980 it has been illegal for the government to collect statistics on religious beliefs or practices.[29] An outdated estimation by the CIA Factbook for the year 2000 is that 87% of Luxembourgers are Catholics, including the royal family, the remaining 13% being made up of Protestants, Orthodox Christians, Jews, Muslims and those of other or no religion.[30] According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005,[31] 44% of Luxembourg citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 28% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 22% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force". [edit] Economy Main article: Economy of Luxembourg Luxembourg has been part of the eurozone since 1999. Luxembourg's stable, high-income economy features moderate growth, low inflation, and low unemployment. The industrial sector, which was dominated until the 1960s by steel, has diversified to include chemicals, rubber, and other products. During the past decades, growth in the financial sector has more than compensated for the decline in steel. Services, especially banking and other financial exports, account for the majority of economic output. In March 2010, the Sunday Telegraph reported that most of Kim Jong-Il's $4bn in secret accounts is in Luxemburg banks.[32] Luxembourg is the world's second largest investment fund center (after the United States), the most important private banking center in the Eurozone and Europe's leading center for reinsurance companies. Moreover, the Luxembourgish government has tried to attract internet start-ups. Skype and eBay are two of the many internet companies that have shifted their global or regional headquarters to Luxembourg. Agriculture is based on small, family-owned farms. Luxembourg has especially close trade and financial ties to Belgium and the Netherlands (see Benelux), and as a member of the EU it enjoys the advantages of the open European market. Luxembourg possesses the highest GDP per capita in the world (US$87,995 as of 2006),[30] the eighteenth highest Human Development Index, and the fourth highest rated in the quality of life index.[33] As of March 2006, unemployment is 4.8% of the labor force.[34] For the fiscal year of 2005 and 2006, Luxembourg has run a budget deficit for the first time in many years, mostly because of slower international economic growth.[35] [edit] Transport Main article: Transport in Luxembourg Luxembourg has efficient road, rail and air transport facilities and services. The road network has been significantly modernized in recent years with 147 km of motorways connecting the capital to adjacent countries. The advent of the high-speed TGV link to Paris has led to renovation of the city's railway station while a new passenger terminal at Luxembourg Airport has recently been opened. There are plans to introduce trams in the capital and light-rail lines in adjacent areas within the next few years. [edit] Telecommunication and Internet The telecommunications industry in Luxembourg is liberalized and the electronic communications networks are significantly developed. A healthy competition between the different operators is guaranteed by the legislative framework Paquet Telecom of the Government of 2005 which transposes the European Telecom Directives into Luxembourgean law . This encourages the investment in networks and services.[36] The regulator ILR - Institut Luxembourgeois de Régulation ensures the compliance to these legal rules Luxembourg has modern and widely deployed optical fibre and cable networks throughout the country. With its central position in Europe, stable economy and low taxes, Luxembourg is an ideal gateway to the European telecommunication markets.[37][38][39] It ranks 2nd in the world in the development of the Information and Communication Technologies in the ITU ICT Development Index and 8th in the Global Broadband Quality Study 2009 by the University of Oxford and the University of Oviedo.[40][41][42][43] Luxembourg is connected to all major European Internet Exchanges (AMS-IX Amsterdam, DE-CIX Frankfurt, LINX London), datacenters and POPs through redundant optical networks.[44][45][46][47][48] In addition, the country is connected to the virtual meetme room services (vmmr)[49] of the international data hub operator Ancotel. This enables Luxembourg to interconnect with all major telecommunication operators[50] and data carriers worldwide. The interconnection points are in Frankfurt, London, New York and Hong Kong.[51] Several providers interconnect Luxembourg to the major European data hubs TERALINK (P&T Luxembourg, also called EPT Luxembourg: incumbent operator)[52] LuxConnect (shareholder : Government) Artelis/Cegecom (alternative telecommunications provider in Luxembourg and Saarland) Satellite connectivity - Teleports (SES Astra, Broadcasting Center Europe and P&T Luxembourg-Uplink Cloche d'Or)[53] More than 10 data center operators are established in Luxembourg.[54] [edit] Internet exchange points Luxembourg is connected through Teralink to several Tier 1 upstream providers like Level3 and Global Crossing. The Internet IPV6 protocol has been introduced to the country by Restena and P&T Luxembourg.[55] Luxembourg has two Internet exchange points. LIX is a neutral Internet exchange operated by the RESTENA Foundation. Its aim is to easily interconnect the different Internet Service Providers (ISPs) within Luxembourg.[56] LUX-CIX is Luxembourg’s neutral and commercial Internet Exchange Point which was founded in 2009 by Cegecom, Datacenter Luxembourg, Global Media Systems, INEXIO, LuxConnect, P&T Luxemboug and Root eSolutions. It offers a short, fast and efficient route to the major European Internet networks.[57][58] [edit] Information society The online portal De Guichet of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is a single one-stop online shop for citizens and companies to realize different sorts of administrative steps (procedures, online forms, downloadable forms and advices) by Internet.[59] [edit] Telematic services PSA Peugeot Citroën, with P&T Luxembourg as its partner, has introduced an integrated mobile telecommunication solution for the development of its telematic services in Europe.[60][61] [edit] Culture Main article: Culture of Luxembourg Edward Steichen, Luxembourgish photographer and painter Luxembourg has been overshadowed by the culture of its neighbours, although, having been for much of its history a profoundly rural country, it retains a number of folk traditions. There are several notable museums, mostly located in the capital; these include the National Museum of History and Art (MNHA), the History Museum of the City of Luxembourg, and the new Grand Duke Jean Museum of Modern Art (Mudam). The National Museum of Military History (MNHM) in Diekirch is especially known for its representations of the Battle of the Bulge. The city of Luxembourg itself is on the UNESCO World Heritage List, on account of the historical importance of its fortifications.[62] The country has produced some internationally known artists, including the painters Joseph Kutter and Michel Majerus, as well as the photographer Edward Steichen. Steichen's The Family of Man exhibition is now permanently housed in Clervaux, and it has been placed on UNESCO's Memory of the World register. Movie star Loretta Young was of Luxembourgian descent. Luxembourg was the first city to be named European Capital of Culture twice. The first time was in 1995. In 2007, the European Capital of Culture[63] was to be a cross-border area consisting of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Rheinland-Pfalz and Saarland in Germany, the Walloon Region and the German-speaking part of Belgium, and the Lorraine area in France. The event was an attempt to promote mobility and the exchange of ideas, crossing borders in all areas, physical, psychological, artistic and emotional. [edit] World Expo Luxembourg will be represented at the World Expo 2010 in Shanghai, China from May 1 to October 31, 2010 with its own pavilion.[64][65] The pavilion is based on the translation of the word Luxembourg into Chinese, which means ‘Lu Sen Bao’: Forest and Fortress. It represents Luxembourg as the ‘Green Heart in Europe’. [edit] Media Luxembourg is known in Europe for its radio and television stations (Radio Luxembourg, RTL Group). It is also the uplink home of SES Astra, carrier of major European satellite services for Germany and Britain. Due to the audiovisual law of 1988, which established a special tax regime for audiovisual investment, the film and co-production in Luxembourg has grown steadily.[66] There exists approximately 30 by agreed production companies in Luxembourg.[67] [edit] Taxes on alcohol, cigarettes and petrol Luxembourg consumes the most alcohol in Europe per capita.[68] However, the large proportion of alcohol purchase by customers from neighboring countries contributes to the statistically high level of alcohol consumption per capita; this level of consumption is thus not representative of the actual alcohol consumption of the Luxembourg population.[69] [edit] See also European Union portal Main article: Outline of Luxembourg v • d • e  Luxembourg topics History House of Luxembourg · Forêts · First Treaty of London · Luxembourg Crisis · Second Treaty of London · First World War · Second World War · Partitions · Military occupations · Jewish history · more Geography Gutland (Little Switzerland · Luxembourg plateau · Moselle Valley · Red Lands · Valley of the Seven Castles) · Oesling · Luxembour