ving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter known as "Neacsu's Letter from Câmpulung".[12] This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land – Teara Rumâneasca (Teara from the Latin: Terra land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: român and rumân.[note 1] Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form român kept an ethno-linguistic meaning.[13] After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc".[note 2] Tudor Vladimirescu, a revolutionary leader of the early 19th century, used "Rumânia" to refer exclusively to the principality of Wallachia, the southern part of modern Romania.[14] The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century.[note 3] This name has been officially in use since December 11, 1861.[15] English-language sources still used the terms "Rumania" or "Roumania", borrowed from the French spelling "Roumanie", as recently as World War II,[16] but since then those terms have largely been replaced with the official[17] spelling "Romania". History Main article: History of Romania Prehistory and Antiquity Main articles: Prehistoric Balkans, Dacia, and Roman Dacia A relief of Dacian king Decebalus from Trajan's Column The oldest modern human remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" in present day Romania.[18] The remains are approximately 42,000 years old and as Europe’s oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent.[19] But the earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in book IV of his Histories (Herodotus) written 440 BCE, where he writes about the Getae tribes.[20] Dacians, considered a part of these Getae, were a branch of Thracians that inhabited Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, between 82BC - 44 BC, and soon came under the scrutiny of the neighbouring Roman Empire. After the assassination of Burebista, Dacia split into 4 or 5 smaller kingdoms, the Romans conquering Moesia by 29 BC. The Dacian Wars, between 87 AD - 106 AD ended with the victory of the Romans, and the transforming of the core of the kingdom into the province of Roman Dacia.[21] Dacia was famed for its rich ore deposits, and especially gold and silver were plentiful.[22] Rome colonized Dacia Felix with colonists from all over the empire ("ex toto orbe Romano infinitas") .[23] This brought Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization, that would give birth to proto-Romanian language.[24][25] Nevertheless, the attacks on the province by the Goths and the free dacian tribes of Carpi between 240AD - 256AD, at which date "Dacia was lost", Rome withdrew its administration from Dacia around 271 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.[26][27] Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analysis tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube.[28] For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians. Middle Ages Main articles: Romania in the Early Middle Ages and Romania in the Middle Ages Bran Castle was built in 1212, and became commonly known as Dracula's Castle after the myths that it was the home of Vlad III the Impaler After the Roman army and administration left Dacia, the territory was held by the Goths,[29] then, in the 4th century by Huns.[30] They were followed by the Gepids,[31][32] Avars,[33] Bulgars,[31] Pechenegs,[34] and Cumans.[35] The Slavs also settled this land during this period. In the Middle Ages, Romanians (Vlachs) lived in three principalities: Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania. Since the 11th century, Transylvania had been part of the Kingdom of Hungary with a largely autonomous status.[36] In the year 1366, king Louis I Anjou of Hungary issued a law-and-order Decree of Turda[37] in part explicitly targeted against the Romanians from Transylvania (presumptuosam astuciam diversorum malefactorum, specialiter Olachorum,1 in ipsa terra nostra existencium - the evil arts of many malefactors, especially Vlachs /Romanians that live in our country; exterminandum seu delendum in ipsa terra malefactores quarumlibet nacionum, signanter Olachorum - to expel or exterminate from this country malefactors belonging to any nation, especially Vlachs/Romanians). Through the same decree, Hungarian nobility (nobilis Hungarus) is partially redefined in terms of adherence to the Roman Catholic Church, thus excluding the Eastern Orthodox schismatic Romanians. Another consequence of the decree was socio-economic: the status of nobleman was determined not only by ownership over land and people, but (from 1366 on) by the possession of a royal donation certificate for the land owned. The Romanian social elite, chiefly made up of aldermen (iudices or knezes), managed to procure few writs of donation; they had ruled over their villages according to the old law of the land (ius valachicum, with its feudal version, ius keneziale); their lands were, to a great extent, expropriated. Lacking a recognized title to real property, the Eastern Orthodox Romanian elite was no longer able to maintain an Estate of their own or to participate in the country's assemblies. Insofar as a Romanian elite was preserved, it adjusted to these circumstances by converting to Roman Catholicism and being absorbed into Hungarian Catholic aristocratic estate (nobilis Hungarus). Those Romanian knezes (and voivods) who did not convert and could not gain the desired privileges gradually declined into the ranks of subjects or even bondsmen. A few years prior, Wallachian Romanians led by Basarab I defeated Charles I Anjou of Hungary at the Battle of Posada. From 1438 Transylvania was governed by the Union of Three Nations formed by the Hungarian nobility, the ethnically Hungarian Székely and Germans. In 1526 the Ottoman Empire conquered southern and central Hungary, and Transylvania became part of the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom ruled by the Habsburgs. In 1571 the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom ceased to exist, and a semi-independent Principality of Transylvania came under Ottoman suzerainty.[38] From 1661 onwards Transylvania came under the rule of the Habsburg Empire.[39] Small Voivodeships with varying degrees of independence developed from the beginning of the 13th century, but only in the 14th century did the larger principalities of Wallachia (1310) and Moldavia (around 1352) consolidate enough to oppose the neighbouring Kingdom of Hungary, Polish kingdom, and the Ottoman Empire.[40][41] Basarab I, Mircea the Elder, Vlad III the Impaler in Wallachia, Alexander the Good, Stephen the Great in Moldavia, developed the Romanian countries, and fought to maintain independence at a crossroad of empires. By 1541, the entire Balkan peninsula and the central part of Hungary became Ottoman provinces. In contrast, Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania came under Ottoman suzerainty, but conserved a great degree of internal autonomy and, until the 18th century, some external independence. During this period these countries witnessed the slow disappearance of the feudal system; the distinguishment of rulers like Vasile Lupu and Dimitrie Cantemir in Moldavia, Matei Basarab and Constantin Brâncoveanu in Wallachia, John Hunyadi (Iancu de Hunedoara) and Gabriel Bethlen in Transylvania.[42] Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania united under the rule of Michael the Brave. In 1600, the principalities of Wallachia, Moldova and Transylvania were simultaneously headed by the prince of Wallachia Michael the Brave, Ban of Oltenia, but the unity dissolved after Michael was killed, only one year later, by the soldiers of Habsburg army general Giorgio Basta. The rule of Michael the Brave is regarded in Romanian historiography as the first attempt to unite the three principalities and to lay down foundations of a single state in a territory comparable to today's Romania.[43] After his death, as vassal tributary states of the Ottoman Empire, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century. In 1699, Transylvania became a territory of the Habsburg Monarchy, following the Austrian victory over the Ottomans in the Great Turkish War. The Austrians, in their turn, rapidly expanded their empire: incorporating Oltenia (western Wallachia) in 1718, to return it in 1739, and occupying Bukovina (north-western Moldavia) in 1775. The development of the Russian Empire as a political and military power materialized in occupation of Bessarabia (eastern Moldavia) in 1812. Thereafter the Phanariot Epoch was characterized by excessive fiscal policies and spoliation of the local inhabitants determined by increased economic needs of the Turkish sultans during the Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire and by the ambitions of some of the Greek Hospodars, who mindful of their fragile status, sought to pay back their creditors and increase their wealth while they still were in a position of power. Independence and monarchy Main articles: Early Modern Romania, National awakening of Romania, Romanian Principalities, Romanian War of Independence, and Kingdom of Romania Territories inhabited by Romanians before WWI Alexander John Cuza was the first Domnitor of the United Principalities of Romania During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens)[44] in a territory where they formed the majority of the population.[45][46] In some Transylvanian cities, such as Brasov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.[47] After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, which forced Romania to proceed alone against the Ottomans. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person –Alexandru Ioan Cuza– as prince (Domnitor in Romanian).[48] Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania. There, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian, and Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian in the late 19th century. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control even in the parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority. In a 1866 coup d'état, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War Romania fought on the Russian side,[49] and in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers.[50][51] In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I. The 1878–1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria, and in the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja.[52] World Wars and Greater Romania (1916–1945) Main articles: Romanian Campaign (World War I), Greater Romania, and Romania during World War II Territorial changes of Romania since 1859 until present The Alba Iulia National Assembly, December 1, 1918 The first two years of the World War I saw a neutral Romania, as its nominal alliance with the Central Powers stated Romania was to oblige only in the event Austro-Hungarian Empire was attacked; while Romania's demands of recognition of its right to annex territories of Austria-Hungary with a Romanian populace were accepted by the Entente only in 1916 in the Treaty of Bucharest. The Romanian military campaign launched in August 1916 was largely unsuccessful, with Central Powers troops capturing Bucharest and occupying Wallachia and Dobrudja, the Romanian Army and the Russian Imperial Army defending Moldova until December 1917. The collapse of the Russian Empire during 1917 and the disbandment of its army left Romania isolated and surrounded on the Eastern Front, and an armistice with the Central Powers was signed in December 1917. The National Council of the Moldavian Democratic Republic proclaimed union with Romania on 27 March 1918. Between May and July 1918, The Treaty of Bucharest was underway between German Empire and Romania with harsh conditions for Romania, and King Ferdinand of Romania refused to ratify it. The Hundred Days Offensive during the summer of 1918, meant the defeat of Germany and Austria-Hungary on the Western and Italian fronts, allowing Romania to renounce the treaty in October 1918. Romania re-entered the war on November 10, 1918. The next day, the Treaty of Bucharest was nullified by the terms of the Armistice of Compičgne. On November 15, 1918 Bukovina proclaimed union with Romania. The National Assembly of the Romanians of Transylvania proclaimed union with Romania on December 1, 1918. The ensuing Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919 led to the destruction of the Hungarian Soviet Republic. The Treaty of Trianon ratified in 1920, established Transylvania under sovereignty of Kingdom of Romania. The union of Bukovina with Romania was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain,[53] and the union of Bessarabia with Romania in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.[54] Total Romanian World War I casualties from 1914 to 1918, military and civilian, within contemporary borders, were estimated at 748,000.[55] The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km2/120,000 sq mi).[56][56] Romanian Army tanks entering Chisinau in 1941 Romania remained neutral after the start of the World War II in September 1939. The Battle of France rendered its allies France and Britain unable to help, and on June 28, 1940, following the Soviet ultimatum which implied invasion in the event of non-compliance[57] the Romanian administration and the Army withdrew from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina and Hertza.[58] Further Axis pressure lead to more territorial losses for Romania: southern Dobrogea was ceded to Bulgaria and Northern Transylvania to Hungary through the Second Vienna Award.[59] The socio-political turmoil resulted in the abdication of Carol II of Romania, and the installment the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by General Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Tensions between the two led to a Legionary Rebellion which was promptly crushed by the Army, and Antonescu established his own dictatorship, allying Romania with Nazi Germany. In 1941 Romania entered the war against the Soviet Union on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was the most important source of oil for Germany,[60] which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. The Romanian Army made a major contribution to the Axis effort on the Eastern Front, retaking Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina and participating in major battles at Odessa, Sevastopol and Stalingrad. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust,[61] following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romanies, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.[62] In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947.[63] By the end of the war, the Romanian Army had suffered about 519,000 casualties.[64] The Paris Peace Treaties, 1947 rendered the Vienna Diktat void, and re-established Romania's western borders. Northern Bukovina and Bessarabia remained occupied by the USSR. By 1948 the pre-war German population of 780,000 had been reduced by more than half.[65] Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 469,000 within the 1939 borders, including 325,000 in Bessarabia and Bukovina.[66] Communism (1945–1989) Main article: Communist Romania The coat of arms of the Romanian Communist Party Anti-communist protesters during the 1989 revolution. Romania was the only Eastern European country to violently overthrow its Communist regime During the Soviet occupation of Romania, the Communist-dominated government called new elections, which were won with 80% of the vote through intimidation and probable electoral fraud.[67] They thus rapidly established themselves as the dominant political force. In 1947, the Communists forced King Michael I to abdicate and leave the country, and proclaimed Romania a people's republic.[68][69] Romania remained under the direct military occupation and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's vast natural resources were continuously drained[70] by mixed Soviet-Romanian companies (SovRoms) set up for exploitative purposes.[71][72] In 1948, the state began to nationalize private firms (see nationalization in Romania), and to collectivize agriculture the following year (see collectivization in Romania).[73] From the late 1940s to the early 1960s, the Communist government established a reign of terror, carried out mainly through the Securitate (the new secret police). During this time they launched several campaigns to eliminate "enemies of the state", in which numerous individuals were killed or imprisoned for arbitrary political or economic reasons.[74] Punishment included deportation, internal exile, and internment in forced labour camps and prisons; dissent was vigorously suppressed. A notorious experiment in this period took place in the Pitesti prison, where a group of political opponents were put into a program of reeducation through torture. Historical records show hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a wide range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens.[75] In 1965, Nicolae Ceausescu came to power and started to pursue independent policies such as being the only Warsaw Pact country to condemn the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia, and to continue diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967; establishing economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany.[76] Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel–Egypt and Israel–PLO peace processes.[77] But as Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars),[78] the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae Ceausescu's autarchic policies. He eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt by imposing policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy, while also greatly extending the author