, the development of wet-rice cultivation and bronze casting in the Ma River and Red River plains led to the development of the Dong Son culture, notable for its elaborate bronze drums. The bronze weapons, tools, and drums of Dong-Sonian sites show a Southeast Asian influence that indicates an indigenous origin for the bronze-casting technology. A Song Da bronze drum's surface. Many small, ancient copper mine sites have been found in northern Vietnam. Some of the similarities between the Dong-Sonian sites and other Southeast Asian sites include the presence of boat-shaped coffins and burial jars, stilt dwellings, and evidence of the customs of betel-nut-chewing and teeth-blackening. Dynastic era The legendary H?ng Bàng Dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered by many Vietnamese as the first Vietnamese state, known as Van Lang. In 257 BCE, the last Hùng king lost to Th?c Phán, who consolidated the L?c Vi?t tribes with his Âu Vi?t tribes, forming Âu L?c and proclaiming himself An Duong Vuong. In 207 BCE, a Chinese general named Zhao Tuo defeated An Duong Vuong and consolidated Âu L?c into Nanyue. In 111 BCE, the Chinese Han Dynasty consolidated Nanyue into their empire. For the next thousand years, Vietnam was mostly under Chinese rule.[7] Early independence movements such as those of the Trung Sisters and of Lady Tri?u were only briefly successful. It was independent as V?n Xuân under the Anterior Lư Dynasty between 544 and 602. By the early 10th century, Vietnam had gained autonomy, but not independence, under the Khúc family. Map of Vietnam showing the conquest of the south (the Nam ti?n, 1069-1757). The Imperial City in Hu? In 938 CE, a Vietnamese lord named Ngô Quy?n defeated Chinese forces at the B?ch Đ?ng River and regained independence after a millennium under Chinese control.[8] Renamed as Đ?i Vi?t (Great Viet), the nation went through a golden era during the Lư and Tr?n Dynasties. During the rule of the Tr?n Dynasty, Đ?i Vi?t repelled three Mongol invasions.[9] Buddhism flourished and became the state religion. Following the brief H? Dynasty, Vietnamese independence was momentarily interrupted by the Chinese Ming Dynasty, but was restored by Lê L?i, the founder of the Lê Dynasty. Vietnam reached its zenith in the Lê Dynasty of the 15th century, especially during the reign of Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (1460–1497). Between the 11th and 18th centuries, Vietnam expanded southward in a process known as nam ti?n (southward expansion),[10] and it eventually conquered the kingdom of Champa and part of the Khmer Empire.[11][12] From the 16th century onwards, civil strife and frequent infighting engulfed much of Vietnam. First, the Chinese-supported M?c Dynasty challenged the Lê Dynasty's power. After the M?c Dynasty was defeated, the Lê Dynasty was reinstalled, but with no actual power. Power was divided between the Tr?nh Lords in the North and the Nguy?n Lords in the South, who engaged in a civil war for more than four decades before a truce was called in the 1670s. During this time, the Nguy?n expanded southern Vietnam into the Mekong Delta, annexing the Champa in the central highlands and the Khmer land in the Mekong. The division of the country ended a century later when the Tây Son brothers defeated both and established their new dynasty. However, their rule did not last long and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguy?n Lords led by Nguy?n Ánh with the help of the French. Nguy?n Ánh unified Vietnam, and established the Nguy?n Dynasty, ruling under the name Gia Long. French colonisation French Indochina in 1913. Main articles: Cochinchina campaign, Sino-French War, French Indochina, and Empire of Vietnam Vietnam's independence was gradually eroded by France—aided by large Catholic collaborator militias—in a series of military conquests from 1859 until 1885 when the entire country became part of French Indochina. The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society. A Western-style system of modern education was developed, and Roman Catholicism was propagated widely in Vietnamese society. Most of the French settlers in Indochina were concentrated in Cochinchina (southern third of Vietnam whose principal city was Saigon).[13] Developing a plantation economy to promote the exports of tobacco, indigo, tea and coffee, the French largely ignored increasing calls for self-government and civil rights. A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders such as Phan Boi Chau, Phan Chu Trinh, Phan Dinh Phung, Emperor Hàm Nghi and Ho Chi Minh fighting or calling for independence. However, the royalist Can Vuong was defeated in the 1890s after a decade of resistance, and the 1930 Yen Bai mutiny of the Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang was put down easily. The French maintained control of their colonies until World War II, when the Japanese war in the Pacific triggered the invasion of French Indochina in 1941. With the defeat of France in Europe, the French Third Republic transformed into the Vichy Regime, to which the colony remained loyal. Heavily dependent on Nazi Germany, Vichy France was forced to surrender control of French Indochina to Japan. The natural resources of Vietnam were exploited for the purposes of the Japanese Empire's military campaigns into the British Indochinese colonies of Burma, the Malay Peninsula and India. First Indochina War Main articles: First Indochina War, Democratic Republic of Vietnam, State of Vietnam, State of Vietnam referendum, 1955, and Operation Passage to Freedom France-marked USAF C-119 flown by CIA pilots over Dien Bien Phu in 1954. In 1941, the Viet Minh — a communist and nationalist liberation movement — emerged under Ho Chi Minh to seek independence for Vietnam from France as well as to oppose the Japanese occupation. An estimated 2 million Vietnamese, or 10% of the population then, died during the Vietnamese famine of 1944–45.[14] Following the military defeat of Japan and the fall of its Empire of Vietnam in August 1945, Viet Minh occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional government, which asserted independence on 2 September.[15] In the same year the Provisional French Republic sent the French Far East Expeditionary Corps, which was originally created to fight the Japanese occupation forces, in order to pacify the liberation movement and to restore French rule. On November 20, 1946, triggered by the Haiphong Incident, the First Indochina War between Viet Minh and the French forces ensued, lasting until July 20, 1954. Despite fewer losses — Expeditionary Corps suffered one-third of the casualties of the Chinese and Soviet-backed Viet Minh — during the course of the war, the French and Vietnamese loyalists eventually suffered a major strategic setback at the Siege of Dien Bien Phu, which allowed Ho Chi Minh to negotiate a ceasefire with a favorable position at the ongoing Geneva conference of 1954. Colonial administration ended as French Indochina was dissolved. According to the Geneva Accords of 1954 the forces of former French supporters and communist nationalists were separated south and north, respectively, with the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone, at the 17th parallel north, between. A 300-day period of free movement was given, during which almost a million northerners, mainly Catholic, moved south, fearing persecution by the communists. A partition of Vietnam, with Ho Chi Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam in North Vietnam, and Emperor B?o Đ?i's State of Vietnam in the South Vietnam, was not intended to be permanent by the Geneva Accords, and they expressly forbade the interference of third powers. The State of Vietnam's Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem toppled B?o Đ?i in a fraudulent referendum organised by his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu, and proclaimed himself president of the Republic of Vietnam. The Accords mandated nationwide elections by 1956, which Diem refused to hold, despite repeated calls from the North for talks to discuss elections.[16] Vietnam War Main articles: Vietnam War, North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, Buddhist crisis, Role of the United States in the Vietnam War, ARVN, Viet Cong, Ho Chi Minh Trail, and Operation Menu Vietnam War memorial in the new Chinatown in Houston, Texas The pro-Hanoi Vietcong began a guerrilla campaign in the late 1950s to overthrow Diem's government, which an official Vietcong statement described as a "disguised colonial regime."[16] In the North, thousands of landowners were murdered by the communists and famine broke out in the 1950s. In the South, Diem went about crushing all opposition and tens of thousands were jailed or killed; dissidents were routinely labelled as communists even if they were anti-communist. Both Vietnams were police states with totalitarian security systems. In 1963, Buddhist discontent with Diem's pro-Catholic discrimination erupted following the banning of the Buddhist flag and the Hue Vesak shootings. This resulted in a series of mass demonstrations during what is known as the Buddhist crisis. With Diem unwilling to bend, Nhu orchestrated the Xa Loi Pagoda raids; estimates of the death toll range into the hundreds. As a result, America's relationship with Diem broke down and resulted in a coup that saw Diem killed. Diem was followed by a series of military regimes that often lasted only months before being toppled by another. With this instability, the communists began to gain ground. There were more than a dozen governments before the pairing of Air Marshal Nguyen Cao Ky and General Nguy?n Van Thi?u took control of a junta in mid-1965. Thieu gradually outmaneuvered Ky and cemented his grip on power in fraudulent elections in 1967 and 1971.[citation needed] To support South Vietnam's struggle against the communist insurgency, the United States began increasing its contribution of military advisers. US forces became embroiled in ground combat operations in 1965 and at their peak they numbered more than 500,000.[17][18] Communist forces attacked most major targets in South Vietnam during the 1968 Tet Offensive, and although their campaign failed militarily, it shocked the American establishment, and caused them to think that the communists could not be defeated.[19] Communist forces supplying the Vietcong carried supplies along the Ho Chi Minh trail, which passed through Laos and Cambodia. US president Richard Nixon authorized Operation Menu, an SAC bombing campaign in Laos and Cambodia, which he kept secret from the US Congress.[20][21] Its own casualties mounting, and facing opposition to the war at home and condemnation abroad, the U.S. began withdrawing from ground combat roles according to the Nixon Doctrine; the process was subsequently called Vietnamization. The effort had mixed results. The Paris Peace Accords of 27 January 1973, formally recognized the sovereignty of Vietnam "as recognized by the 1954 Geneva Agreements." Under the terms of the accords all American combat troops were withdrawn by 29 March 1973. Limited fighting continued, before the north captured the province of Phuoc Long in December 1974 and started a full-scale offensive, culminating in the Fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. South Vietnam briefly came under the nominal rule of a Provisional Revolutionary Government while under military occupation by North Vietnam. On 2 July 1976, North and South were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Postwar period The government embarked on a mass campaign of collectivization of farms and factories. This caused an economic collapse and resulted in triple-digit inflation. Reconstruction of the war-ravaged country was slow, and serious humanitarian and economic problems confronted the communist regime. Millions of people fled the country in crudely built boats, creating an international humanitarian crisis.[22][23] In 1978, the Vietnamese army invaded Cambodia (sparking the Cambodian-Vietnamese War) which removed the Khmer Rouge—who had been razing Vietnamese border villages and massacring the inhabitants—from power,[24] installing a regime whose leaders rule until 1989.[25] This action worsened relations with China, which launched a brief incursion into northern Vietnam (the Sino-Vietnamese War) in 1979.[26] This conflict caused Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet economic and military aid. Đ?i M?i (renovation) At the Sixth Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam in December 1986, reformers, upset by the lack of economic progress after the Vietnam War,[27] replaced the "old guard" with new leadership.[28] The reformers were led by 71 year-old Nguyen Van Linh, who became the party's new general secretary.[28] Linh was a native of northern Vietnam who had served in the south both during and after the war.[27][28] In a historic shift, the reformers implemented free-market reforms known as Đ?i M?i (renovation), which carefully managed the transition from a planned economy to a "socialist-oriented market economy".[29][30] With the authority of the state remaining unchallenged, private ownership of farms and companies engaged in commodity production, deregulation and foreign investment were encouraged while the state maintained control over strategic industries.[30] The economy of Vietnam subsequently achieved rapid growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction and housing, exports and foreign investment. Government and politics Main articles: Politics of Vietnam and Foreign relations of Vietnam Presidential Palace, Hanoi (formerly Place of The Governor-General of French Indochina) Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum in Hanoi. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a single-party state. A new state constitution was approved in April 1992, replacing the 1975 version. The central role of the Communist Party of Vietnam was reasserted in all organs of government, politics and society. Only political organizations affiliated with or endorsed by the Communist Party are permitted to contest elections. These include the Vietnamese Fatherland Front, worker and trade unionist parties. Although the state remains officially committed to socialism as its defining creed it is increasingly capitalist,[31] according to The Economist it is currently run by "ardently capitalist communists".[32] The President of Vietnam is the titular head of state and the nominal commander in chief of the military of Vietnam, chairing the Council on National Defense and Security. The current Prime Minister of Vietnam, Nguyen Tan Dung, is the head of government, presiding over a council of ministers composed of three deputy prime ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions. The National Assembly of Vietnam is the unicameral legislature of the government, composed of 498 members. It is superior to both the executive and judicial branches. All members of the council of ministers are derived from the National Assembly. The Supreme People's Court of Vietnam, which is the highest court of appeal in the nation, is also answerable to the National Assembly. Beneath the Supreme People's Court stand the provincial municipal courts and the local courts. Military courts are also a powerful branch of the judiciary with special jurisdiction in matters of national security. All organs of Vietnam's government are controlled by the Communist Party. Most government appointees are members of the party. The General Secretary of the Communist Party is perhaps one of the most important political leaders in the nation, controlling the party's national organization and state appointments, as well as setting policy. The Vietnam People's Army (VPA) is the official name for the combined military services of Vietnam, which is organized along the lines of China's People's Liberation Army. The VPA is further subdivided into the Vietnamese People's Ground Forces (including Strategic Rear Forces and Border Defense Forces), the Vietnam People's Navy, the Vietnam People's Air Force and the Vietnamese People's Coast Guard. Through Vietnam's recent history, the VPA has actively been involved in Vietnam's workforce to develop the economy of Vietnam, in order to coordinate national defense and the economy. The VPA is involved in such areas as industry, agriculture, forestry, fishery and telecommunications. The total strength of the VPA is close to 500,000 officers and enlisted members. The government also organizes and maintains provincial militias and police forces. The role of the military in public life has steadily been reduced since the 1980s. Human rights Main article: Human rights in Vietnam In its 2004 report on Human Rights Practices, the U.S. Department of State characterized Vietnam's human rights record as "poor" and cited the continuation of "serious abuses". According to the report, the government has imposed restrictions on freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and freedom of association.[citation needed] International relations Main articles: Foreign relations of Vietnam and Vietnamese Army Vietnamese troops on Spratly Island The current Vietnamese foreign policy is: "Implement consistently the foreign policy line of independence, self-reliance, peace, cooperation and development; the foreign policy of openness and diversification and multi-lateralization of international relations. Proactively and actively engage in international economic integration while expanding international cooperation in other fields. Vietnam is a friend and reliable partner of all countries in the international community, actively taking part in international and regional cooperation processes."[33] As of December 2007, Vietnam had established diplomatic relations with 172 countries (including the United States, which normalized relations in 1995).[34][35] Vietnam holds membership of 63 international organizations such as the United Nations, ASEAN, NAM, La Francophonie, WTO and 650 non-government organizations.[36] Geography Location  Laos  China  China  Laos South China Sea    Vietnam      Cambodia South China Sea South China Sea Subdivisions Main articles: Provinces of Vietnam and Districts of Vietnam Provinces of Vietnam Vietnam is divided into 58 provinces (known in Vietnamese as t?nh, from the Chinese ?, sheng). There are also 5 centrally controlled municipalities existing at the same level as provinces (thành ph? tr?c thu?c trung uong). Red River Delta B?c Ninh Ha Nam Ha Tay Hai Duong Hung Yen Nam Dinh Ninh Binh Thai Binh Vinh Phúc Ha Noi (municipality) Hai Phong (municipality) North Central Coast Ha Tinh Nghe An Quang Binh Qu?ng Tr? Thanh Hóa Th?a Thiên-Hu? Northeast B?c Giang B?c K?n Cao Bang Ha Giang Lang Son Lao Cai Phu Tho Quang Ninh Thái Nguyên Tuyen Quang Yen Bai Northwest Dien Bien Hoa Binh Lai Chau Son La Central Highlands Dak Lak Dak Nong Gia Lai Kon Tum Lam Dong South Central Coast Binh Dinh Khanh Hoa Phu Yen Quang Nam Quang Ngai Da Nang (municipality) Southeast Ba Ria-Vung Tau Binh Duong Binh Phuoc Binh Thuan Dong Nai Ninh Thuan Tay Ninh Ho Chi Minh (municipality) Mekong River Delta An Giang B?c Liêu B?n Tre Ca Mau Dong Thap Hau Giang Kien Giang Long An Soc Trang Tien Giang Tra Vinh Vinh Long C?n Tho (municipality) The provinces are further subdivided into provincial municipalities (thành ph? tr?c thu?c t?nh), townships (th? xă) and counties (huy?n), and then, subdivided into towns (th? tr?n) or communes (xă). The centrally controlled municipalities are subdivided into districts (qu?n) and counties, and then, subdivided into wards (phu?ng). Geography and climate Main articles: Geography of Vietnam and Climate of Vietnam Ha Long Bay, a World Heritage Site Ban Gioc Waterfalls in Northern Vietnam Vietnam is approximately 331,688 km2 (128,065 sq mi) in area (not including Hoang Sa and Truong Sa islands), larger than Italy and almost the size of Germany. The perimeter of t